by J. Bunker Clark
Nothing is more dull in a performance of Baroque music than a continuo harpsichordist who mechanically plays a chord for every bass note in the score. Or who reverently plays a printed realization, which usually follows the same practice. Only rarely one hears a realization exhibiting some element of spark and imagination.
This "essay" consists of ten examples demonstrating various ways of treating a figured bass in a creative manner. The intended instrument is the harpsichord, not the organ, for the harpsichord is capable not only of furnishing chords, melodies, and polyphony, but is also--due to the noisy jacks--a percussive instrument, which quality may as well be exploited from time to time. Sometimes only jack-noise can be heard in an orchestral situation.
The most important advice is a) to be imaginative and do something different than a printed realization, and b) to be sensitive to the performance situation. These examples are intended for an orchestral continuo player, but some of the principles can be applied to chamber groups. (Continuo on the organ demands a different treatment.) All but the last example are from Handel's Messiah, and include the printed realization available from Kalmus. I originally intended this article to be unencumbered with scholarly apparatus, but consultation with several colleagues prompted an annotated bibliography.
Bibliography/Notes
Arnold, Franck Thomas. The Art of Accompaniment from a Thorough-Bass, as Practised in the XVIIth & XVIIIth Centuries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931; reprint, with introduction by Denis Stevens, in 2 vols., New York: Dover, 1965. The title to ch. 4, "On Certain Niceties of the Accompaniment," is borrowed from C. P. E. Bach's chapter "Von gewissen Zierlichkeiten des Accompagnements" (Versuch, part 2, 1762, ch. 32; Mitchell trans., pp. 386-403). Arnold's book is the grand-daddy on the subject. Much of it, however, is about how to realize specific figures.
Ashworth, Jack. "How to Improve a Continuo Realization." American Recorder 26, no. 2 (May 1985): 62-65. P. 62: "The first axiom of playing continuo accompaniment from an editorially supplied part is that one must never hesitate to change it" (p. 62). Tips (p. 65): "1. Be sensitive to the frequent necessity of reducing the texture from four to three--or occasionally even to two--parts, depending on the volume of the solo instrument, the range in which it is playing, and the nature of the piece. 2. Do not feel compelled to play a chord on every bass note provided by the composer. In fact, don't even be tempted to. 3. Avoid doubling or going above the soloist's part in the realization. 4. Avoid playing full chords on bass notes taking the weak part of a beat unit. 5. Be sparing with ornamentation. 6. Above all, remain sensitive to the needs of the soloist, and accommodate those needs insofar as you can. Good continuo players must be as supportive as they are unobtrusive."
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel. Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen. Berlin, 1759, 1762. Trans. William J. Mitchell as Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. New York: Norton, 1949. Ch. 6, "Accompaniment," is the most relevant, especially the section "Some Refinements of Accompaniment," pp. 386--403, a "must read" primary-source primer on the subject. There are many cross-references to Arnold's 1931 book in Mitchell's notes. Several valuable quotes: "Of all the instruments that are used in the playing of thorough bass the single-manual harpsichord is the most perplexing with regard to forte and piano. To make amends for the imperfection of the instrument in this respect the number of parts must be increased or reduced" (p. 368). "It is often necessary to strike chords over short rests in advance of their bass notes, as a means of retaining order and winning variety" (p. 418, in a section "Chords that precede their bass notes"). For recitatives, see pp. 420--25, which includes, for the organ: "In recitatives with sustained accompanying instruments, the organ holds only the bass, the chords being quitted soon after they are struck."
Borgir, Tharald. The Performance of the Basso Continuo in Italian Baroque Music. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1987. Ch. 19, "Neapolitan Continuo Practice: The Partimenti," 141--47, is the most important for this purpose. The term "partimenti" represents a bass needing realization in the treble, resulting in a piece that can serve as a keyboard solo. First developed by Gaetano Greco (ca. 1657--ca. 1728), it was further developed by Francesco Durante in a manuscript titled Partimenti, ossia intero studio di numerati, per ben suonare il cembalo. Durante's exercises consist of harmonizing ascending and descending scales (later called regola dell'ottave, rule of the octave). The advanced ones have written-out passages in the treble: scales or other motives in one hand imitating the other. Indeed, the third (and last) group of exercises is of fugues. Ch. 20 includes excerpts of written-out accompaniments, mostly in solo cantatas, by Francesco Gasparini (1695), Benedetto Marcello, Alessandro Scarlatti, and a sonata attributed to Handel for viola da gamba and "cembalo concertato."
Bötticher, Jörg-Andreas. "'Regeln des Generalbasses': Eine Berliner Handschrift des späten 18. Jahrhunderts." Basler Jahrbuch für Historische Musikpraxis 18 (1994): 87--114. This concerns a manuscript by "Herrn Musico Heering," dated 1771, which includes a realized edition of Largo and Vivace movements from a C-major sonata for two flutes by Johann Gottlieb Graun (pp. 111--13), with some examples of a right-hand chord on a beat where the bass part has a short rest. The issue also has these articles: Graham Sadler and Shirley Thompson, "Marc-Antoine Charpentier and the Basse Continue," 9--30; Arnaldo Morelli, "Basso Continuo on the Organ in Seventeenth-Century Italian Music," 31--45; George J. Buelow, "The Italian Influence in Heinichen's Der General-Bass in der Composition (1728)," 47--66; Regula Rapp, "Was der späte General-Baß?," 115--27; and see notes to the last item, below.
Buelow, George J. Thorough-Bass Accompaniment According to Johann David Heinichen. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. Rev. ed., Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986. An excellent guide to continuo playing by a highly respected scholar, based on the most important writer of the early 18th century (1711, 1728) on the subject. Heinichen took advantage of the publication of Gasparini (1708; see below). The most valuable section is ch. 6, "The 'Art' of Accompaniment: Specific Aspects of Style," pp. 175--218. Includes examples of changing right-hand realization in quarters or 8ths to 16th figuration; and even break up 8ths or quarters in the bass (pp. 194--202). But the reverse (pp. 202--03): change 16ths in bass to quarters or 8ths. There is a section (pp. 205--08) on imitating a solo voice in the right hand. Ch. 9 is a practical demonstration of realizing Alessandro Scarlatti cantata Lascia deh lascia al fine di tormentarmi più.
Daube, Johann Friedrich (1756), quoted in The Bach Reader, ed. Hans T. David and Arthur Mendel, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1966), 256:
For the complete practical application of thorough bass it is necessary to know three species: (1) the simple or common; (2) the natural, or that which comes closest to the character of a melody or a piece; (3) the intricate or compound.
The excellent Bach possessed this third species in the highest degree; when he played, the upper voice had to shine. By his exceedingly adroit accompaniment he gave it life when it had none. He knew how to imitate it so cleverly, with either the right hand or the left, and how to introduce an unexpected counter-theme against it, so that the listener would have sworn that everything had been conscientiously written out. At the same time, the regular accompaniment was very little curtailed. In general his accompanying was always like a concertante part most conscientiously worked out and added as a companion to the upper voice so that at the appropriate time the upper voice would shine. This right was even given at times to the bass, without slighting the upper voice. Suffice it to say that anyone who missed hearing him missed a great deal.
Daw, Brian A. "Alessandro Scarlatti's Continuo Realization of Da sventura a sventura (1690): An Analysis and Observations Relating to Late Seventeenth-Century Keyboard Practices." Early Keyboard Journal 4 (1985-86): 51--60. Shows (pp. 54--55) how Scarlatti anticipates or imitates motives in the solo voice; also keyboard textures a 3--7 (not necessarily the usual 4 parts), and distributing realization in both hands. Leaves out the 3rd in a cadence when it's sung by the voice. Main point: the continuo complements, not doubles, the voice.
Derr, Ellwood. "Concertante Passages in Keyboard Realizations in Handel: Some Guidelines." The Diapason, September 1985, 9--12. Liberally quotes Heinichen/Buelow. Subjects: arpeggiation; furnishing imitations, as explained by Heinichen, and with example from J. S. Bach; examples from Handel's "O thou tellest" (the descending scale, imitations by Handel). "What eighteenth-century writers have not commented upon is the matter of necessity, as occasions arise, for the treatment of the concerting harpsichord part to complete the musical surface. It is then the task of analysis to ferret out these details. While realizations of certain passages may be undertaken on the basis of examples in treatises, those made on the basis of contextual settings in real pieces by composers of stature are likely to be more successful still, especially in the hands of a capable continuo harpsichordist" (p. 12).
Donington, Robert. The Interpretation of Early Music. Rev. ed. New York: Norton, 1992. The section "Going Beyond the Figures," especially pp. 306--07, 313--15, is valuable, relevant, and includes quotes from 17--18th-century authors.
Dreyfus, Arthur. Bach's Continuo Group: Players and Practices in His Vocal Works. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987. " . . . manuscripts . . . provide no evidence to indicate how keyboard players voiced the chords of the continuo realization. For this reason I have not discussed styles of continuo realization."
Gasparini, Francesco. L'armonico pratico al cimbalo: Regole, osservazione, ed avvertimenti per ben suonare il basso, e accompagnare sopra il cimbalo, spinetta, ed organo. Venice, 1708. Facsimile, New York: Broude Bros., 1967. Trans. Frank S. Stillings, ed. David L. Burrows, as The Practical Harmonist at the Harpsichord. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1963. Ch. 10, "Del diminuire, abbellire, or risiorire gli accompagnamenti" (diminution, embellishment, and adornment of the accompaniment) has examples of right-hand counter-melodies; ch. 11, "Del diminuire, ò risiorire il fondamento" (diminution, or adornment of the bass), has examples of breaking up or arpeggiating the continuo line.
Gudger, William D. "Playing Organ Continuo in Handel's Messiah." The American Organist 19, no. 2 (February 1985): 91--92. On use of organ vs. harpsichord, and how the organ was often used only to double bass line and imitative entries of the chorus. Handel normally had two harpsichords for oratorios--the first played by himself until the late 1730s, when he had a claviorganum (combination organ/harpsichord).
J. S. Bach's Precepts and Principles for Playing the Thorough-Bass or Accompanying in Four Parts. Trans. Pamela L. Poulin. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. Dated 1738, much is adapted from Friederich Erhardt Niedt, Musicalische Handleitung oder Gründlicher Unterricht (Musical guide or fundamental instruction; Hamburg, 1700/10). How to realize the figures; nothing more creative.
Keller, Hermann. Thoroughbass Method: With Excerpts from the Theoretical Works of Praetorius, Niedt, Telemann, Mattheson, Heinichen, J. S. & C. P. E. Bach, Quantz, and Padre Mattei, and Numerous Examples from the Literature of the 17th and 18th Centuries. Trans. and ed. Carl Parrish. New York: Norton, 1965. From Mattheson, Grosse Generalbaß-Schule (Hamburg, 1731): break up right-hand chords like a pleasing toccata (p. 47). From Heinichen, Der Generalbass in der Composition (Dresden, 1728): instead of "poor kind of accompaniment" or "very plainly accompanied," "either 1) divide the accompaniment between both hands . . . or 2) undertake the full-voiced accompaniment with the left hand alone and thereby enable to the right hand with more ease to invent a separate song or melody to the bass, as far as our ideas, taste, and talent will allow" (p. 48).
Ledbetter, David, ed. Continuo Playing According to Handel: His Figured Bass Exercises. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Dated from 1724 and mid-30s, when he was teacher to daughters of George II, especially Princess Anne. Root, 6 chord, 6/4 chords, 6/5 chords, 2 chords, &c.; exercises in fugue, with models. Nothing especially creative.
Rogers, Patrick J. Continuo Realization in Handel's Vocal Music. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1989. The first part deals with figuring in the sources; it's the second part, "Realization Problems," that is of more use: unison textures (play realized or unrealized?), and problems of realization in recitatives. Ch. 8, "Short Rests in the Bass," deals with whether to play a chord over a bass rest, and supports doing so from examples. Theorists of the time also describe the practice--for example, see quote from C. P. E. Bach, above. Mattheson's Grosse General-Baß Schule (Hamburg, 1731): ". . . it must be observed that the right hand must necessarily sound first when a sixteenth rest occurs . . . because the empty space offends the ear, which wishes most of all that everything be orderly and continuous, complete, and not broken up. Striking first with the right hand can be used with such rests throughout in accompanying, except for a few instances where the composer's intentions must be regarded" (quoted p. 148). Cites Telemann's Singe-, Spiel- und Generalbass-Übungen (Hamburg, 1733--34)--of 48 short songs, figured rests are used in six. Ch. 9, on pedal points, concludes, backed up by Heinichen, Telemann, and C. P. E. Bach, that figured pedal points generally should be harmonized, but unfigured ones not. Includes (pp. 186--87) detailed figuring of the Messiah's Pifa, meas. 1--11.
Rogers, Patrick J. "A Neglected Source of Ornamentation and Continuo Realization in a Handel Aria." Early Music 18, no. 1 (February 1990): 83--89. 1st: 2-part arrangement Ms. (ca. 1725) at the Fitzwilliam Museum of "Molto voglio" from Rinaldo, is included in Chrysander's 2nd ed. (1894) of the opera. 2nd: "Sventurato, godi o core abbandonato" from Floridante. 3rd: "Cara sposa" from Radamisto. These arrangements: 1) frequently contain at least part of the aria text; 2) usually are not literal transcriptions, and segments are recomposed and improved; 3) they are effective idiomatic keyboard pieces; 4) either are simple 2-part versions, which may relate to Handel's teaching duties, or more elaborate arrangements in 3 or more parts; 5) some have extensive ornamentation of the original vocal line. "Cara sposa" is a continuo aria, with complete text between staves. Rogers concludes that it's really a keyboard piece, perhaps freely based on pre-existing vocal ornamentation--best example of such ornamentation--and includes a complete edition in the article.
Thieme, C. A. Treatise, "Some Most Necessary Rules of Thorough Bass by J. S. B." [1725], once owned by Johann Peter Kellner, trans. in Bach Reader, 390--98. Basically how to realize chords from the figures.
Towe, Teri Noel. "Messiah: Reduplication without Redundancy: Editions and Recordings Past and Present." The American Organist 19, no. 2 (February 1985): 74--90. Occasional references to continuo playing in recordings.
Williams, Peter. Figured Bass Accompaniment. 2 vols. Edinburgh University Press, 1970. The best modern book on the subject, with many quotes and examples from the treatises, and vol. 2 has many unrealized examples, with interspersed suggestions for completing them. "When the bass rests on the beat, play the chord in the right hand" (p. 31, from Bologna Ms., ca. 1730; C. P. E. Bach, ch. 37; Manfredini 1775, 59). "Not all quick repeated bass notes have to be played; they may be omitted or broken" (Türk 1822, 293).
Williams, Peter. "Johann Sebastian Bach and the Basso Continuo." Basler Jahrbuch für Historische Musikpraxis 18 (1994): 67--86. Includes (pp. 77--78) a realization by Heinrich Nikolaus Gerber (Bach's pupil) of Sonata no. 6 from Tomaso Giovanni Albinoni, Trattenimenti armonici per camera, op. 6 (Amsterdam, ca. 1712)--the realization (ca. 1724--25), according to Gerber, "durchcorrigirt von Sebastian Bach." Williams: ". . . at least a few ties between the upper parts are beginning to suggest an articulated part-writing." Also cites Bach's written-out accompaniment for the Largo of the Flute Sonata in B minor, BWV 1030, from the autograph score. "There is some evidence in Germany that players were sometimes encouraged to work towards a more 'künstlerisches' accompaniment than can easily be produced from a merely 'schulmeisterlich' harmonization in four parts" (p. 81). Bibliography, pp. 85--86.