Reverberation: serving sound or serving music?

The late 20th century has not been kind to church acoustics. Good homes for organs are becoming increasingly scarce. Existing ones are under siege, as acoustically fine churches are spoiled all around us by misguided renovations often made, curiously, in the name of acoustical improvement. And sadly, what is usually offered today by architects for an organ environment in new buildings falls woefully short of the mark. While the problem is hardly a new one, it has never been more severe. Increased wealth and shifting tastes, especially toward comfortable interior furnishings, have lent the trend increasing force. The result is that poor church acoustics have become perhaps the greatest impediment to fine organ building in America.

For as long as anyone can recall in the organ building business, there have been battles over church acoustics with prospective customers. Organs are more sensitive to their surroundings than other instruments. Thus inordinate amounts of time have been and are being spent educating parishioners in the fundamentals of liturgical acoustics—not only for the sake of their investment in an organ, but for improvement of the entire worship environment. Looking back on it, we don't seem to have gotten very far. Sound absorbing carpets, pew cushions, and flimsy construction are far more prevalent today than they were 30 years ago, and ignorance of what is missing pervades the church. It would be easy to lose heart, for the road has become a lonely one. Yet, the occasional reminder of hearing an organ and congregation singing in a great space somehow keeps organ builders pressing toward the goal.

One can hardly blame parishioners for not understanding what constitutes proper acoustics in a church. Most have never encountered any good examples, let alone worshiped in them regularly. Two hundred years ago the accepted techniques of construction and furnishing for buildings, be they public halls or private homes, would have tended to create a favorable acoustical setting for organ music. In America today we seldom experience such naturally resonant spaces. Prevailing influences on architecture from cost cutting to modern building materials, aesthetic taste and energy conservation have so reshaped our aural expectations that if by chance a reverberant space appears, people hasten to tame it with acoustical absorption. Hopefully, a return to once assumed but now forgotten acoustical values can be brought about through education. To this end we can ask what makes a proper acoustical space for an organ and why it is so difficult to have one built and to keep it unspoiled.

The basic acoustical needs of an organ are simple enough. Apart from the musical quality of the instrument itself, two factors stand out as crucial to success. The first is the requirement that the room support and carry the sound of the organ well. The second is proper placement of the organ within the room.

Organ music, like choral and congregational singing, flourishes in reverberant spaces. Even one stop voiced by an amateur can sound full and beautiful in a lively, reflective space, while many ranks in a dead room strain to create a similar effect. Organ tone should linger in the room for between two and four seconds, decaying gradually without discernible echoes. It is not enough, however, to make the space merely reverberant. The response should be well balanced for all frequencies from 32 cycles to 8,000 cycles (corresponding to the organ's bass and treble pitches), so that the music is neither shrill, monotonous, nor muddy, but rather warm, full, and clear. Note that organs have a wider frequency spectrum than the human voice, and that therefore acoustics which are adequate for singing may not support the highest and/or lowest frequencies of the pipes. Meeting these acoustical standards from an architectural standpoint requires close attention to the shape and volume of the space, to the materials used to create it, and especially to the way the materials are used.

An organbuilder is usually called on to propose an organ for an existing church. Discussions almost always include suggestions from the builder for acoustical improvements. To foresee where these proposals may lead, an examination of the acoustical ideals of new buildings is helpful, for the same principles apply to renovations.

To determine a suitable shape for a church, one begins with examples of existing churches which are known to work well acoustically. Many of the best are older buildings which have proven their merits over the years. Organs developed in Europe where churches were generally rectangular in floor plan, often with transepts and side aisles. These buildings were tall in proportion to their floor area. Music developed freely above the heads of the congregation in space which had no other practical value than its spiritual power in music and vision. These churches were also relatively narrow, a significant feature in reflecting organ music off side walls, thereby blending and focusing the tone in a particular direction rather than allowing its energy to dissipate. Opposing walls were rarely completely parallel but were so shaped as to diffuse sound evenly rather than permit problematic flutter echoes and encourage  certain frequencies at the expense of others.  Vaulted ceilings, uneven plastered walls, chandeliers and other furnishings and molded details usually insured proper diffusion. Church architects today ignore these time-honored principles at great risk.

Sturdy material such as masonry and plaster characterize the construction of the best traditional churches. These materials have sufficient mass to reflect sound energy evenly. By comparison, weak panels of thin modern materials which drum when struck (for example, large expanses of glass, or gypsum board and plywood on widely-spaced studs) are no friend to organ tone.

Designing and building an outstanding space for an organ does not need to be prohibitively expensive. Architectural style is not so important, so long as the boundaries of shape and materials are heeded. A sympathetic architect who is not afraid to learn from successful models should have little trouble presenting a compelling design based on a simple shape. The wise use of ordinary construction materials can go a long way toward holding down costs. For example, concrete block and gypsum board can be used effectively, so long as they are made to be firm reflectors of sound. In the case of block this means sealing its pores. Old-fashioned plaster makes a fine interior coat. Several layers of gypsum board firmly anchored to a stronger wall behind work well.

Height in a church, on the other hand, does not come cheaply. It is exactly here than many a promising design is cut down to size, leaving the church acoustically and architecturally crippled. Organ music suffers from the loss.

Today's overriding concern with the conservation of heat regularly takes precedence over church acoustics on several counts. Thermal insulation, sound absorbent by nature, is most often installed just behind thin inner walls. Making such walls acoustically reflective does involve additional cost, but the problem can be solved if a solution is desired. Furthermore, people wish to save on fuel bills by avoiding high ceilings. They do not respond well to the suggestion that they might lower their thermostats instead.

This brings up the whole issue of comfort, which has become such a threat to liturgical acoustics. In the Middle Ages, significantly at the very time when organs first flourished, such furnishings as a church might have had were practical but hardly comfortable. Heating was unknown. Since then a standard of comfort has gradually replaced this, and with it has come the ubiquitous use of sound-absorbent fabrics for seats, floors, and sometimes even walls. The trend has now gone so far that the willingness to sit on a well-designed wooden seat in a cool church is fast disappearing, even among those who gladly spend an afternoon sitting on hard bleachers at a sports event. Curious, isn't it that while it would rarely occur to anyone to place sound absorbing materials near an organ, it is thought desirable to surround with fabrics the congregational singer, whose musical contribution is so much more to be encouraged and prized. Are we not becoming a nation of ever more effete church-goers, confused in our values, because there is no one teaching us otherwise? Could it be that our forefathers might have appreciated certain spiritual qualities of life more than we? We would do well to reflect on the remark that there is by nature something harsh and bracing about liturgical acoustics, not unlike the Gospel.

There are, of course, churches in which excessive reverberation needs to be controlled. Too many organ committees have been led to crusade for reverberation as an end in itself. The issues are not that simple, for there are many other factors touched on here which contribute to the warmth, resonance, and clarity of a church's aural environment. In planning for an organ the advice of a qualified acoustical consultant can be invaluable.

While the subtle pitfalls of room acoustics can never be completely avoided, they can be greatly minimized by obtaining experienced opinion. Many acoustical consultants are competent architects in their own right, capable of designing superior halls. Their advice should be sought in the early stages of design and then followed, not ignored by architects and contractors as is often the case. One caveat is in order: to be successful the acoustician must appreciate the difference between liturgical acoustics in which a congregation participates in making music and concert/lecture hall acoustics, in which an audience is there only to listen. Thoughtful review of the consultant's experience with other churches should reveal sensitivity to this point. With good liturgical acoustics the organ's needs will almost certainly be met.

Fortunately, there is no conflict between acoustical requirements for singing and for organs. This is hardly surprising, since a fundamental element of the best organ tone is its vocal quality, especially in the principal stops. It is this singing of organs which evokes in the layman the urge to sing. No other instrument has this unique evocative quality. On the other hand, organ tone is not limited to the vocal. It is also instrumental in character, and at times even imitative of other instruments. It is this dual nature of organ sound, both vocal and instrumental, which makes it endearing and broad in its musical appeal.

Many argue that clarity of the spoken word cannot co-exist with reverberant acoustics. This is one place where technology has come to the aid of music, for with a carefully-designed sound system it is now possible to maintain a high degree of intelligibility even in rooms which are extremely reverberant. Here again the advice of a knowledgeable consultant should be sought.

Assuming that every effort has been made to provide good acoustics for the church, the question of placing the organ within the room then arises. The importance of placement cannot be overestimated. Occasional compromises may be considered where acoustics are exceptionally fine, but they are still compromises.

Like a preacher or choir, an organ should project its sound directly to the hearer, not around corners. No minister would think of preaching without facing the congregation. The strange notion popular early in this century, that organs belong in chambers beside the church, has been recognized for its error. Any obstruction such as an arch or rood screen which separates organ from congregation is suspect.

Ideally, organs should face the long axis of the building. Clarity is lost when the organ is made to speak sideways across the width of the church, for in order to be heard in the nave it will have to be made unnaturally loud nearby. This leaves two options, namely, placing the organ on the front or back wall of the church. Of these two a rear gallery is usually the preferable location, for it puts organ and choir near the ceiling in a place otherwise unused except for windows and tower walls. Because organs are architecturally imposing, it is difficult to locate them discreetly in front of the church. Where possible that end is better reserved for the sacraments and proclamation of the word.

Organs sound best when they are placed high in the church. Sound which comes from above enjoys advantages over sound produced on the level of the hearer. Its dispersion is more even in the space. The tone is not absorbed so quickly as it travels back through the congregation. Also its steep angle of incidence on side walls discourages confusing echoes. For these same reasons public address loudspeakers are placed high above the heads of crowds. Many wonderful organs have been placed just under a ceiling which provides immediate reflection of the tone downward. The sound gains presence and focus from this phenomenon which we call early reflection. Like a pulpit soundboard the ceiling keeps the sound energy from being dissipated overhead. This effect is so prominent that pipes nearest the ceiling will sound closer to the floor than pipes below them in the same organ. Without a reflector above it an organ takes on an ethereal quality which can be quite beautiful but is musically less precise.

The pipes of the organ need a shallow wooden case around them. The case is the first reflector for the tone, a miniature room in itself. Its job is not only to protect the pipes, but to restrain and blend their many sounds into music and direct it into the church.

These then are a few guidelines for effective placement of an organ in a proper acoustical environment. There will always be exceptions, and organbuilders will forever strive to overcome their acoustical problems for the sake of their art. It is still the responsibility of churches and architects to provide the best possible environment for this peculiar craft, so costly in time and money, and so rewarding in its musical power. A church can ill afford less, for it will live with the results of these decisions far into the future.

Part I appeared in the February issue, pp. 16-18.

The "art" of sound recording consists of selecting the proper microphones for a given situation and placing them in the most advantageous position. We will look at three basic techniques--coincident, near coincident and spaced omnidirectional--and then discuss which might be more beneficial given the specifics of organ layout and room acoustics.

Coincident Microphone Placement

We've probably all been to a concert where a professional recording engineer has set up one very large and impressive microphone on an equally large and impressive stand with which to make a stereo recording. Within that large microphone were actually two directional microphones which the engineer, with an amazing amount of flexibility, can select, position and modify by remote control. Coincident means "to occupy the same area in space," and that's what a stereo microphone has: two mono mikes occupying the same space within the microphone housing. One of the characteristics of all coincident techniques is that the sound arrives at the left and right microphones completely "in phase."28

Figure 10 shows how you can position two cardioid (unidirectional) microphones in a coincident position. The strength of this technique is that it gives a fairly realistic stereo image when played back through speakers (i.e., the first violins seem to be on the left, and the double basses seem to be on the right). The weakness is that the stereo image seems to lack a "sense of space."29 Since cardioid microphones are directional, they accept sound from the source in front of them and reject sound, such as reverberation, coming from the room behind the microphones. This may be a plus in an extremely reverberant room.

Professionals may also choose to use two "figure of eight" directional microphones30 set in an "X" pattern at 90° to one another, each of which picks up not only sound from in front but some from behind as well. This coincident technique, invented by British scientist Alan Blumlein in the 1930s, can give very natural sound in some circumstances.

Another coincident technique favored by some professionals is the "M-S" system31, which requires a special processing network to resolve the recorded sound into left and right stereo signals. An advantage here is that it gives the mixing engineer greater control of the stereo image from the mixing desk than is available with any other technique.32

Near-Coincident Techniques

In a successful attempt to improve the stereo illusion, sound engineers began to separate the coincident microphones ever so slightly so the sound arrives at the microphones just slightly out of phase, thus contributing additional information which enhances the stereo image.33

We'll discuss two similar setups, the ORTF system from the French National Broadcasting Organization and the NOS system from Dutch Broadcasting. Both of these use cardioid (unidirectional) microphones. The ORTF system splays the microphones out at a 110° angle and separates the recording capsules by 17 cm (63/4"), whereas the NOS has the mikes at a 90° angle with a 30 cm (113/4") separation.34 These near-coincident techniques are superior to two strictly coincident cardioid microphones. Professional audio stores sell inexpensive adjustable rigs to hold two cardioid microphones on one mike stand in a near-coincident configuration similar to NOS (see Fig. 11). A near-coincident variation of the Blumlein technique places two figure of eight mikes at 90° to each other in an "X" configuration, but separated by about 7".

Spaced Omnidirectional Mikes

In many of the coincident or near-coincident configurations we just discussed, you are recording primarily the sound of the organ alone. With a spaced pair of omnidirectional microphones, however, you are recording not only the direct sound from the source, but also the room's response to the sound--reverberation--which is a big plus in organ recording. Under the best circumstances, the sound of spaced omnis can be very open and sensual indeed.35

How far apart should the microphones be spaced? The minimum is about 4'--that is, 2' on each side of the centerline drawn between the sound source and the microphones. Omni mikes are typically spaced 1/3 of the way in from the edges of the sound source. For example, if the organ is 18' wide the microphones could be placed 6' apart--3' on either side of the centerline (see Fig. 12).

If the sound source is very wide, however, two omnidirectional microphones may be spread so far apart that an aural "hole in the middle" becomes apparent. This is alleviated by placing a third omnidirectional microphone directly in the center, and then with a mixer adding just a bit of its sound to the left and right channels.26 If the volume of the center mike isn't kept quite soft compared to the left and right mikes, however, you will kill the stereo effect. A variation of this "center channel" technique provides a third mike to accent a soloist.

Spaced Pair of PZMs

Spaced PZM microphones behave very much like a spaced pair of omnidirectional mikes. The bass response of PZM mikes is enhanced when they are resting on a surface at least 4x4'--thus the floor is an excellent place for them. However, you don't want to bury them in the shadow of a pew or other obstructions, as this will modify their hemispherical pickup pattern. The author's favorite PZM setup uses two 4x4' pieces of masonite37 which are stored at the church and placed on top of the pews as needed. For flattest frequency response, place the PZM 1/3 of the way off center--8" off center on a 4x4' panel38 (see Fig. 13). For personal analysis recordings, you may be able to position the mikes on the console (see Fig. 14).

Which Is Better?

There is a spirited debate in the audio world between the proponents of coincident or near-coincident techniques versus the advocates of a spaced pair of omnidirectional mikes. The coincident techniques--which ensure that the left and right channels are in phase--used to solve problems that no longer exist today: the difficulties of cutting the master from which LP recordings (remember LPs?) were stamped, the difficulties of phono cartridges (remember them?) tracking low frequency sounds on LPs, and the problem of sound cancellation on mono radio stations (a rare breed) as out-of-phase stereo signals were summed to mono.

Further, as Edward Tatnall Canby observed in Audio, the bureaucracy at National Public Radio mandates coincident recording techniques (especially M-S) and gives them a hard sell in spite of the fact that many listeners find something important missing in the resulting recordings.39 Agreeing with Mr. Canby, Christopher Czeh, Technical Director of WNYC Public Radio in New York wrote:

The phase differences between spaced omnidirectional microphones help the listener in mentally recreating the spatial acoustics of the original performance. I have used spaced omnis for classical recordings for six years and have obtained excellent results. The major reason I prefer spaced omnis over coincident mikes is that they sound better in most circumstances.40

David Wilson of Wilson Audiophile Recordings, agrees and notes the crucial difference between the ears and microphones:

Microphones "hear" very differently than ears do. The microphone is very literal in what it picks up. There is no neurological ear-brain system that compensates for ambiance and perspective. For most recording, I prefer omnidirectional microphones because they are more natural sounding. That is, they more naturally integrate the sound of the instrument with room acoustics, and that's very important with pipe organs. In almost every organ recording I've made, however, I've experimented with a coincident pair of directional microphones, almost out of a sense of technical duty. After listening to the test results, I've almost always gone back to a spaced pair of omnis.

Frederick Hohman of Pro Organo has a different view:

My personal preference is for good directional microphones--not omnidirectional. A pair of these can be placed in any conventional pattern and configuration one desires. A single stereo mike could be the easiest way to do a quick setup, since this eliminates the factor of microphone spacing.

Jack Renner of Telarc, who has recorded Michael Murray in many diverse situations, looks at the broad picture:

The thing about coincident or near-coincident microphone techniques such as the ORTF configuration with directional mikes, or the crossed figure of eights, or the M-S systems, is that while they may not be everyone's cup of tea in terms of finished sound--I myself like the sound of a pair of spaced omnis--the coincident techniques will give you a perfectly acceptable recording and are a very safe way to approach a recording of anything.

How Far from the Organ?

How far the microphone(s) are placed from the sound-producing elements of the organ is one of the critical decisions in any recording setup, and it won't be the same for all circumstances. If an organist is making personal "analysis" recordings, a relatively close microphone position will give increased clarity, especially in a reverberant room. If the goal of the recording is to show the organ/room combination to its best advantage, a more distant position will increase the proportion of room (reflected) sound. Pipedreams' Michael Barone, who has probably listened to more organ recordings than anyone and who has made quite a few organ recordings as well, has some definite opinions:

A lot of people think that to get a sense of space they need to record from the back of the hall, and so many organ recordings are made miserable by this "gray tunnel" effect. But you don't want to put the microphones within two or three feet of the chamber either. You want to place the microphones where there is an obvious focus of the sound, but where the sound has begun to excite the room and participate in the acoustics of the space.

John Eargle of Delos agrees that most people tend to place the microphones too far from the organ, and describes how he decides where to place the microphones:

First I walk around the room while listening to the instrument. The best place for the mikes is within a zone where the direct sound of the organ and the reverberant sound coalesce. What you have at this magic point is a very natural blend of room sound, plus good articulation from the instrument.

David Wilson is a firm believer in recording some "tests" to determine the best place for the microphones:

Generally I will start testing with a very close placement, say perhaps 10 or 12', which is closer than I believe is ideal. We will record 30 seconds or so of music and move the microphones back--generally I move them back in 3' increments--and record another test. We repeat this procedure five times. I also vary the height, starting with a height which is less than ideal--I believe 8' or so is the minimum satisfactory height--and go up from there to perhaps 20' or higher. I also vary the spacing between microphones. I start with the microphones closer together than I think they should be, say 4', and separate them further. By listening to the playback of these tests, we discover the best distance from the organ, height and between-mike spacing.

Jack Renner also stresses listening:

In placing the microphones, a lot of it is experience and a lot is listening. I have the organist play with various combinations of stops and I walk around the room listening until I find a place that sounds focused and blended--a place where all the registers seem to come together and where the bass pipes especially sound good and solid. You will find a point where there is good balance between the direct sound from the pipes themselves and the reverberant sound of the room, where you have a pleasing mix and where you don't hear various voices "popping" in and out, which is one of the biggest pitfalls in organ recording.

Aesthetics and Mike Distance

Crucial factors in deciding how far the microphones should be placed from the organ may well be the type of organ, the type of room and the type of music to be recorded. You might expect one type of presence, articulation, clarity and room sound for an all-Bach program on a tracker organ in a moderate-sized church, and have completely different expectations for a program of Romantic music on a large Romantic organ in a reverberant cathedral. Personally, I think a good number of recordings of the latter type have been ruined because the engineer was striving for too much clarity. These misguided attempts often have harsh, close-up organ tone and inadequate reverberation from mike positions that were too close. In this context it is very educational to listen to the same organ played by various artists and recorded by different engineers.41 Despite what the "experts" say, only you can decide if you like cathedral music to wash over you in a sea of reverberation.42

More than two Mikes?

When the sound source is very wide, for example a symphony orchestra or an organ that is quite spread out from left to right, you may have to spread a pair of omnis so far apart that you begin to lose sound from the middle--giving rise to the expression "the hole in the middle." Some recording engineers solve this problem by placing a third omni mike directly on the center axis of the sound source and mixing it on site into the left and right channels at a much softer level. This is Telarc's standard three-mike setup for symphony orchestras, although for concertos they will use additional mikes if necessary to highlight the soloist. Telarc's standard organ setup is two spaced omnis. However, they used a three-mike setup to record the wide organ at Methuen Music Hall, with the mikes about 35-40' back from the organ. When John Eargle recorded Robert Noehren on the large Rieger which sits front and center in the chancel of the Pacific Union College Church in Angwin, California:

We used three spaced omni mikes, 15-18' from the organ case. This case, like most trackers, is fairly shallow--eight feet deep at most. If there is a magic zone for mike placement that seems to work with this type of instrument, it is in the 17-20' range.

Other recording engineers, David Wilson included, do not use this technique because they feel that mixing a centrally-positioned monophonic mike into the left and right channels dilutes the stereo effect.

Recording the Reverberation

In order to capture the way an organ really sounds in a room, it is sometimes necessary to add additional microphones to record the reverberation. Few American churches have an excess of reverberation, but many have more than would be captured by the setups we have described thus far--two or three microphones placed relatively close to the organ. So a pair of microphones at some distance from the organ, with a small amount of the output of the left "reverb" mike mixed into the left channel and vice versa, does the trick. One might think that a single mike placed at a distance with the output shared between the channels--a variation on the "hole in the middle" technique--would suffice, but this is not usually done:

Reverberation from a single [distant] source divided between the left and right channels is unsatisfactory because the resulting sound, which, to give a natural effect, should be distributed across the space between the two loudspeakers, appears in this case to emanate from a single point.43

When John Eargle recorded Robert Noehren playing the organ he had built in 1967 for The First Unitarian Church in San Francisco:

I wanted to accurately portray the physical layout of the organ--which is arranged left to right in the rear gallery--so the primary mikes were a pair of directional cardioids splayed in a near-coincident configuration. The room is not reverberant, but there is enough room sound to give a nice glow and enhance the music. So we used an additional coincident pair of directional mikes, aimed more or less at the side walls, to capture this glow.

When Michael Barone recorded the Fisk organ at House of Hope in St. Paul, Minnesota, he encountered a similar situation:

The organ, which has a Rückpositiv, is located in the rear gallery. It generates a lot of bass energy, but that is not apparent in all areas of the room and generally not along the center aisle as the bass energy tends to hug the walls. So we placed a single stereo mike in the center aisle on a stand tall enough to get it well above the Rückpositiv. We also placed a pair of omni mikes a little further back from the organ closer to the side aisles, and then mixed the four inputs together until it sounded good--it's a little like cooking!

John Eargle describes his technique recording the large encased Rosales tracker organ at Trinity Episcopal Cathedral in Portland, Oregon:

The organ is located at the back of a rather deep chancel. Two omnidirectional microphones were used for direct pickup of the instrument in the chancel area, while a coincident pair of directional mikes was placed out in the church for reverberant pickup.

Improving the Room

There are basically two things you can physically do to the room before recording: decrease the noise and increase the reverberation. Potential noise sources that you may be able to do something about include: ventilation and heating systems, buzzing fluorescent lights, open doors or windows, etc. You may have to work around other noise sources like vehicular and air traffic, school children, and even expansion sounds from the roof as the sun heats it up mid-morning and it cools down in the evening.

It will increase the reverberation in an empty church significantly if the pew cushions can be removed. This is John Eargle's standard practice and he gets a lot of benefit for a reasonable effort. If the church is large and storage of the cushions is a problem, try stacking the cushions from two pews on top of the third, etc., etc. This will expose two-thirds of the hard pew surfaces (see Fig. 15). Or if the church has theater-type chairs with plush cushions, flip all the bottoms upright to minimize the absorptive surfaces.

Some Typical Solutions

The following are some microphone selection and placement solutions for various types of rooms:

Excessive reverberation--Use a pair of cardioid (unidirectional) microphones in a near-coincident configuration such as ORTF or NOS.

Minimal or average reverberation in a large room--Start with a pair of spaced omnis or PZM mikes and then, if you have mixer capabilities,44 try an additional coincident pair of directional microphones further back in the room mixed very subtly into the main pair (left into left and right into right).

Very wide sound source--Use a pair of spaced omnis or PZMs 1/3 in from the edges of the sound source. If necessary, a third omni in the center can be very subtly mixed in if there is an audible "hole in the middle." Alternatively, experiment with a splayed pair of directional cardioid mikes in the ORTF or NOS configuration.

Divided organ on the left and right sides of chancel or gallery--Try a pair of spaced omnis or PZMs. At Grace Cathedral in San Francisco, David Wilson recorded the huge Aeolian-Skinner which is divided in left and right chambers in the chancel plus a Bombarde Division at the rear center of the chancel. He used just two omnis spaced 8' apart, on stands about 20' high placed in the nave about 15' from the organ.

Rear gallery placement or organ high in the chancel--Unless the rear gallery is very deep (potentially allowing microphone placement within the gallery), you will need stands that allow you to get the microphones well up in the air.

Gallery placement with a Rückpositiv--The mike stands must enable placing the mikes well above the Rückpositiv if the correct balance between divisions is to be recorded (review the section on mike stand safety).

Organ is in a chamber on one side of a large chancel--The "standard" placement of a pair of spaced omnis on either side of the center aisle or a pair of coincident mikes in the center aisle pointed toward the rear of the chancel will pick up too much sound in one channel and not enough in the other. If the chancel is big enough, you might try a pair of spaced omnis within the chancel, each of which is the same distance from the organ.45 Alternatively, you might try a pair of cardioid directional mikes in the ORTF or NOS configuration within the chancel placed opposite the organ chamber and pointing at it. A third possibility is a pair of PZM mikes taped to the chancel wall opposite the organ.  With these solutions, the reverberation component will likely be nil, calling for reverberation mikes further back in the nave.

Organ is in a chamber on one side of a small chancel--If the chancel is not that large, try to adapt either of the above alternatives through placement within the nave. For example, if the pipes are on the left of the chancel, place a near coincident pair of cardioids on the right side of the nave pointing towards the organ. Or if using a spaced pair of omnis, keep the left and right microphones approximately equidistant from the pipes. Always avoid placing an omni mike too close to a wall to prevent hard reflections.

Modifying Registrations

If the purpose of the recording is to hear the effect of a piece you're learning or to document a recital performance, then the registrations are chosen for the live performance and the recording is secondary. But if the primary purpose is to create a recording which shows the music, artist, organ and room off to best advantage, the question of modifying registrations to serve that end is legitimate. English recording engineer Michael Smythe offers this advice:

One must keep a keen ear open for stops that do not record well. What may sound fine in the church may come through the loudspeaker as an opaque noise, for example, the booming sound which 16' pipes quite often produce on certain notes. Therefore the organist has to rethink his registration for recording, which may be totally different from a recital. Sometimes one can do nothing about it, however, there being no suitable alternate stops.46

The late Michael Nemo of Towerhill, who made numerous recordings of John Rose on the huge Austin at St. Joseph Cathedral in Hartford, concurred:

From a technical point of view, there are some problem stops. For example, 32' flues like a Bourdon or Open Wood can be quite pleasing in person. As most stereo systems won't reproduce anything at all from the bottom range of a 32' stop, however, it doesn't mean much on a recording. And by virtue of strong, low-frequency fundamental, these stops often create enormous standing wave problems in the room. No two 32' stops are alike in the way they record, however--some can be quite delicious and others only cause problems.

Excessive Dynamic Range

In addition to eliminating problem stops, there is the question of the dynamic range of large, Romantic organs. Consider Dupré's Cortège et Litanie, which begins very quietly on a solitary Choir Dulciana (sans pedal) and ends fff with a page of crashing chords over an octave pedal point. While this enormous dynamic range can sound glorious in person, if the recording level is set as it should be for the fff climax, the pp sections on tape will recede into inaudibility. If you turn up the playback volume so you can actually hear some detail in the pp sections--which you certainly can in a live performance--when the piece gets to the ff and fff sections you will be blasted into the next county unless you turn the volume back down again.

In the analog days when recording was done on magnetic tape, you would have a good bit of tape hiss competing with the Dulciana and thus there was motivation to avoid excessively soft sounds. But now that professional recording is done on hiss-free DAT,47 many engineers--reveling in the huge dynamic range of DAT recordings released on CD--are creating recordings of large, Romantic organs that virtually force listeners to keep their fingers on the volume control, especially when using headphones.

There are two ways around this. One is for the organist to compress the dynamic range of the organ by, in the Cortège et Litanie, for example, leaving the sub and super couplers off48 for the climax and substituting the Geigen Diapason for the Dulciana at the beginning--at that volume level the Geigen will sound like a Dulciana and the climax will be good and loud nonetheless. Another option is for a recording engineer who reads music and can follow the score to increase the volume level of the very quiet parts at the mastering stage.49 The final recording should not simply enshrine the technical capabilities of the DAT/CD medium but should be a reasonable facsimile of the way the performer's artistry actually sounds in the room.

Conclusion

Making recordings can be a useful tool for self study, a means of communicating with potential employers and professional competitions, a satisfying hobby, a part-time career, or the means to artistic fulfillment. We have endeavored to explain the bare minimum required for an understanding of the process. We have given some "quick and easy" prescriptions for personal recording. And finally, we have explored professional recording techniques used by some of the top pros in the field, whom we sincerely thank for their time and generosity.               

Part two of two

II.

The balance of this article will explore some of the methods used by Schoenstein in designing symphonic organs.

Tonal Variety

In planning a symphonic organ, no tone color that might be useful is excluded from consideration, and if something new seems appropriate we will develop it. We see no problem in combining individual sounds from French, German, English and American traditions of different periods in one instrument. This may seem like a dangerous approach, and it is . . . for those who must follow only established rules. If, on the other hand, a designer has in mind a well-formed image of the tonal architecture and its end result, the freedom to include elements of rare beauty handed down to us by the great builders of the past can open new avenues of creativity. This approach is only successful when applied with the strictest of discipline. Anything that does not blend and pull its weight in the ensemble or serve in a variety of solo or accompaniment roles should not be included. Collecting multiple elements of different traditions in an attempt to combine two or more repertoire-specific instruments into one is usually disastrous. The once-popular procedure of building an organ with a German Great and Positiv and French Swell or adding a romantic Solo to a neo-classic design are ideas that have, fortunately, lost their appeal. The goal should be to create an ensemble that has integrity in its own right and is able to acquit itself musically in a number of different styles with such conviction that there is no need to claim “authenticity.”

An equally important rule of design is to avoid making an instrument any larger than necessary or practical. No organ should have more stops than it needs to get its musical job done. No organ should be so large that it becomes unseviceable or acoustically chokes on its own bulk. When too much organ is squeezed into too little space and/or spread hither and yon, maintenance and tuning problems are sure to result. An organ should be of adequate size to be considered symphonic, but that size is much smaller than one might think. The smallest organ we have made that can qualify is the 15-voice, 17-rank instrument in the chapel of the University of St. Thomas, Houston, Texas (see stoplist). Certainly 40 to 50 voices provide ample opportunity for design freedom and 60 to 70 voices are all that should be required even for very big buildings. An example of our approach in a large symphonic plan is at First Plymouth Congregational Church in Lincoln, Nebraska (see stoplist). Note that this instrument has 73 voices if the separate gallery organ is not included.

Our stoplists show how we combine various tone colors, but a few explanatory notes may be in order. When combining individual stops into groups, we think of them in these categories: first, traditional choruses of diapasons and reeds; second, stops of moderate power from all tonal families serving in both accompanimental (manual and pedal) and in solo roles; third, ethereal stops--the extremely soft and delicate tones of the flute, string or hybrid type; fourth, bass stops of exceptional depth and power; and fifth, heroic solo stops. Some stops, of course, can fit into more than one of these categories but the classification is useful in reviewing whether or not the organ has all of the tonal characteristics common to a good symphonic ensemble.

Since the diapason is unique to the organ and the tone most often used, we seek to provide several (with appropriate chorus development), each of distinct character, on organs of even modest size. They vary not only in scale, but in mouth width, slotting, etc. We like to include stops of the echo diapason class (dulcianas, salicionals, etc.) as well. During the organ reform movement, open flutes, particularly at 8’ pitch, were not in vogue. We tend to include more open than stopped flutes. Stops of genuine string tone have not been popular either. This is a sad omission and certainly an organ without them cannot be considered symphonic. We like to include a family of strings and celestes from very narrow to very broad scale, all with true string quality rather than the geigen principal type that served as string tone in neo-classic organs. We try to include at least one of each of the color reeds (Clarinet, Oboe, Vox Humana and, where possible, horns, and specialty stops such as the Orchestral Oboe) as well as a complete chorus of trumpet tone (in large schemes, those of both closed and open shallot type). To broaden both dynamic and color ranges, very soft flue stops (often of the hybrid, tapered types) and bold solo stops (usually of the trumpet or tromba class) are important. In small schemes these effects can be had with stops doing double duty through effective expression.

We have developed several new voices. Some of these are variations on long established styles such as our Celestiana, which is a very narrow scale, quarter-tapered hybrid of clear but very soft flute tone; the Cor Seraphique with its Vox Angelique celeste is a larger scale version. Our Corno Dolce and Flute Celeste are brighter renditions of the E. M. Skinner Flauto Dolce and Flute Celeste. We find this bright character more generally useful in smaller instruments. The Voix Sérénissime is a small scale string of extremely keen intonation but of soft volume. The Silver Flute is a narrow-mouth, non-harmonic version of our large Harmonic Flute. It may be thought of as a metal Claribel Flute. 

The Symphonic Flute is a new development, also called Bœhm Flute, incorporating many different pipe constructions throughout its compass to achieve an interesting effect found in the orchestra’s family of transverse flutes. The flute of the symphony orchestra is bright and reed-like in its lower register with a full, increasingly powerful and pure, bell-like treble. These tone qualities are carried downward to the alto, bass and contra-bass flutes and upward to the piccolo. The Symphonic Flute was realized after extensive studies with flute players and manufacturers, as well as a careful review of Bœhm’s treatise. The tonal character is achieved, as in real flutes, by maintaining nearly the same diameter from bass to treble. The diameter progresses unevenly to achieve particular effects, but it does not reach the half-way point until the 48th pipe. The pipes in the bass therefore are of string scale progressing through principal, moderate flute, a wide flute, to very wide flute at the top. Pipe construction is of five varieties: slotted; non-slotted; harmonic; double mouth harmonic; and double mouth, double harmonic. This new solo color for the organ is both powerful and beautiful.

We employ high wind pressure for beauty, precision, or smoothness of tone where it is required. Solo flutes and strings and all closed shallot chorus reeds certainly have benefited from this treatment. Loudness can be achieved by other means, but carrying power without harshness is most perfectly achieved through heavy pressure.

A final note on tone is perhaps the most important point in this essay: Beauty of tone trumps all else in organ design. Beauty is perhaps too simple a term. Organ stops of great character can be quite bold and assertive, colorful and mysterious, languid and wistful. They are all forms of beauty to my ear. The secret is committed voicing. By that I mean making tone that has something to say, not simply playing it safe with blandness. Anyone who studies organ tone knows what I mean. Great voicing imparts something extra to energize a tone and make it appealing. A single diapason of beautiful quality will outplay a 100-rank organ that is all bluster and blandness. An organ may look symphonic on paper, but if the character of tone is not beautiful, it cannot qualify. An organ of any type with beautiful tone will surpass a poor symphonic one. However, if beauty of tone can be combined with all of the flexibility promised in the symphonic ideal, the result can be sublime.

Balance

To achieve balance there must be a center of gravity and in the symphonic organ it is at 8’ in the manuals. Each division should lay its foundation at the 8’ level. This, after all, is where the music is written. In our symphonic concept, upperwork is considered a coloring agent, a way of adding a distinctive character to the 8’ line. Therefore, in chorus design, as a general rule, scales decrease as pitch levels increase. Where we have the luxury of two mixture stops in a division, we vary them in color and dynamic rather than pitch: for example, one at mf and another at ff or one with a tierce and one without. Sometimes the mixture is enclosed separately. We avoid flutiness and overemphasis of off-unison pitches in upperwork; pure, clear diapason tone is the goal. Most 8’ stops, particularly those that must blend with related upperwork, have high harmonic content, a satisfying brilliance in their own right. Eight-foot stops are also regulated in a treble-ascendant fashion to emphasize the melody line; pipes become progressively slightly louder as they ascend the compass from the middle of the keyboard.

Horizontal balance is equally important and we believe that all of the manual divisions should be of adequate power to balance one another; the Swell and Great approximately equal and the Choir only slightly below. Reeds and flues should be equally balanced, but in certain acoustical situations the reeds should dominate. In dealing with chambers or in rooms of dry acoustic, open flute, string, and chorus reed tone are far more effective in producing tone of noble and powerful character than is diapason upperwork.

Clarity

One only has to see the density of a Reger, Widor, or Elgar score to realize that clarity is vitally important in romantic and modern music--as much as in early music. Many organs just present great blocks of sound. This may be titillating, but it is not music making. The notes must be heard if the intent is to be expressed. Most of the burden for clarity rests on the organist, who must judge his instrument and his acoustic; but the organ must not stand in his way. Clarity is achieved in an organ by many means including steady wind, precise action, voicing for prompt, clean attack and clear tone that is steady and free of irritating chiff, wild harmonics, and white noise.

Enclosure

There are vital qualities of freshness and presence associated with unenclosed pipework, but we believe that having pipes unenclosed is a luxury that can only be afforded in a scheme that also has a full range of resources, including Pedal stops, enclosed in at least two boxes. In smaller jobs the entire organ should be under expression, although sometimes circumstances dictate otherwise, for example where the Great must be placed forward of the Swell. In very large jobs it is good to have tones of similar character enclosed and unenclosed so that each class of tone can be used in its full range of expressive beauty. The best enclosure is masonry. Hollow brick faced with cement is the preferred construction and this points out the advantage of organ chambers in some situations. If an organ is primarily used for accompaniment where dynamic control and atmospheric, ethereal effects are of utmost importance, a properly designed and located chamber is ideal. An enchambered organ is as different from an encased free-standing one as a piano is from a harpsichord. Each has its advantages and each must be designed differently. The enchambered organ requires a stoplist emphasizing stops scaled and voiced for exceptional projection and carrying power, higher wind pressure, and a layout taking maximum advantage of the opening and preventing echoes within the chamber. In recent years chambers have been thoughtlessly despised. It is time to recognize their value as a means of increasing the range of musical options offered by the organ.

Dynamic Control

The symphonic organ must provide the organist with three distinct types of dynamic control: continuous, discrete-terraced, and sudden. These are all qualities common to the symphony orchestra, but often illusive on the organ. The continuous dynamic is achieved on the organ only through the use of the expression box and shades. A good expression box when fully open should not rob the pipes of clear projection and presence to any great degree, but when closed should reduce loudness from at least ff to p. To achieve this, a box must be reasonably sound proof with adequate density to control leakage of bass and must be well sealed when closed: Gaps are anathema to good expression box control. The shades cannot be too thick because their bulk will not permit a full use of the opening. Shades should be able to open 90 degrees. They must be fast acting and silent. Achieving smooth, continuous expression control is one of the greatest challenges in organ building.

To achieve a continuous dynamic range from fff to ppp we have developed a system of double expression, placing a box within a box. (See drawing.) The inner box is placed at the rear of the outer (main) box so that there is a large air space between the two sets of shades. When both sets of shades are closed, the space contained between them provides a very effective sound trap. We place the softest and most powerful sounds inside the inner box of the division. For example, a pair of ethereal strings and the Vox Humana; the high pressure chorus reeds and a mixture. A balanced expression pedal is provided at the console for each box. On large instruments a switching system allows the organist to select conveniently which shades are to be assigned to each balanced pedal. With the shades not quite fully open, the stops within the inner box are at a normal volume level to balance the rest of the division. With both sets of shades fully closed the soft stops in the inner box are reduced to near inaudibility and the chorus reeds are reduced to the level of color reeds. With all shades fully open, the chorus reeds and mixture are slightly louder than those of the Great. The Vox Humana usually has its own shades with a console switch to shift from pp to mf. There are many expressive possibilities with this system. For example, a crescendo may be started using the ethereal strings with both boxes closed, opening the inner box until the level is equal to the soft stops in the outer box, which are then added. The outer box is opened, adding stops in the normal manner while closing the inner box. The chorus reeds and mixture are drawn and the inner box reopened to complete the crescendo. This is done with ease after a bit of practice. During the installation of our organ in Washington, D.C. at St. Paul’s Church, music director Jeffrey Smith accompanied the Anglican choral service with nothing more than the Swell organ for over a month. It was the double box arrangement that made this possible.

The discrete-terraced dynamic requires having an adequate number of stops of similar or related tonal quality at different dynamic levels so that increased power is achieved in increments by adding stops. This effect is realized by hand registration, pistons, or a well-arranged crescendo pedal.

The third character of dynamic--sudden change--is usually done with manual shifts, second touch, very fast-acting expression shades, or a silent, fast and uniform stop action controlled by either the combination action or the Crescendo pedal and backed up by a steady, responsive wind system. Without this, a symphonic approach to organ playing is impossible. Clattery mechanism is annoying under any circumstances but especially so when sudden changes are required in the midst of a phrase, for example, to underscore an anthem or hymn text. We have introduced a device that adds another means of accent: the Sforzando coupler. It is a simple device wherein a coupler, for example Solo to Great, is made available through a momentary-touch toe lever. A fff combination can be set on the Solo and added to a ff combination on the Great at a climactic point with a brief touch of the toe to create a sforzando effect.

Wind System

There has been much discussion in recent decades about the virtue of flexible or “living” wind. If the wind supply were under the direct control of the player to be manipulated at will, there might be some point to argue. Since it is not, unsteady wind has no place in the symphonic organ. The whole point of the symphonic approach is to seek absolute control by the organist of all resources. So-called flexible wind is set in motion according to the design of the system and the demands being placed upon it. The organist can strive to achieve a reasonably pleasant effect, but he cannot have full control over the result. We believe in providing absolutely steady wind using a multiplicity of regulators, not only to make available different wind pressures, but to assure consistent response from all pipes under all playing conditions. Most chests are fed by at least two steps of regulation, each with spring control, so that the final regulator in the system does not have too much differential for which to compensate. A moving bass line should not upset the treble; intervals and chords should not de-tune when wind demand is high. It’s also important for the wind system to have more than adequate capacity to handle any demand and to have quick refill response so that staccato tutti chords will sound firm and full as they do in the orchestra. All too often, organs with great nobility of sustained tone turn into gasping caricatures when the forward motion of the music goes beyond their limits.

Another important wind system effect is a beautiful vibrato. We have developed a Variable Tremulant device, which allows the organist to control the speed of the beat from a balanced pedal at the console. We employ this normally on solo stops such as our Symphonic Flute. The normal, completely metronomic tremulant of the organ seems a bit unnatural when applied to lyrical passages. The Variable Tremulant allows the organist to simulate the more subtle vibrato used by first class instrumentalists and singers. The Vox Humana is also provided with a slow/fast tremulant switch, to fit both general and French Romantic repertoire.

Action

Speed and precision of both key and stop action are critical to the success of a symphonic organ. Key action must be lightning fast on both attack and release and respond uniformly from all keys regardless of the number of stops or couplers employed. Stop action must be fast and clean, i.e., without any hesitation or gulping on draw or release. Again, the entire action system must be silent. To meet these requirements we use electric-pneumatic action with an individual-valve windchest. (See illustration.) The expansion cell provides a cushioning effect similar to that of a note channel in a slider chest. It also allows placement of all action components near one another on the bottom board to reduce action channeling and increase speed.

The most important musical advantage of individual valves is to eliminate interdependence of pipes. With the exception of mixtures, where all pipes of a given note always speak together, we consider it a serious musical defect to place pipes on a common channel where the wind characteristics are different depending on the number of stops drawn and where there is a possibility of negative interaction within the channel. This is especially true, of course, with combinations of reeds and flues on the same channel and/or several large stops using copious wind. Each pipe should produce the same sound each time it is played no matter how many others are combined with it. As with flexible wind, the organist loses a degree of control over his instrument if random changes in pipe response can occur.

The most important reason for absolute uniformity of chest response under all conditions is the fact that pipes do not have the flexibility to adjust for variations in attack, wind supply, and release as do other wind instruments. A trumpet player, for example, can adjust attack, tone color, and release to an amazing degree of subtlety through precisely coordinated changes in breath, diaphragm, throat and mouth shape, tongue motion and position, embouchure, mouthpiece pressure, etc. In an organ, all of the analogous elements of control are set in place permanently by the voicer with the sole exceptions of wind regulator (diaphragm) and pipe valve (tongue motion). The pipe cannot change to accommodate variations in valve action and wind supply. As described before, wind supply cannot be controlled by the organist. This leaves the valve as the only means of control—and that control is limited even on the best mechanical actions. I submit that this element of control is actually a negative because variations in valve action, being different from the one experienced by the voicer, will be more likely to degrade pipe speech than to enhance it. If the key touch can affect attack and release but not all the other elements of tone production, then it follows that the organist is placed in the position of devoting his thought and energy toward avoiding ugly effects instead of concentrating on elements of performance that can be under precise and complete control. By maintaining absolute uniformity the performer knows what will happen every time a pipe is played.

Rather than searching for the elusive quality of touch control on the organ, we believe it is best to enhance speed of response and accuracy. The best way for an artist to achieve lyrical phrasing, clear articulation, and accent is through absolute control of timing. This is facilitated by keyboards with an articulated touch, providing a definite feel of the electric contact point, and an action that is immediately responsive both on attack and release. A sensitive player can then realize the most intricate and subtle musical ideas on what is essentially a large machine. The more the mechanism gets in the way of performance, forcing certain techniques, the less artistic freedom one has and the further the organ strays from the mainstream of instrumental and vocal music.

Flexible Control

We seldom acknowledge that the organist assumes the roles of orchestrator, conductor and instrumentalist—a daunting task to say the least. In effect, he is given nothing more than the kind of three-stave sketch that a composer might give to an orchestrator. The decisions an organist must make about registration are directly analogous to the orchestrator deciding on instrumentation, doubling, voice leading, chordal balance, etc. Since the organ is really a collection of instruments, the organist also has the conductor’s job of balancing the dynamic levels of individual sounds, accompaniments, inner voices of ensembles, counter melodies, and so on. As an instrumentalist he must have virtuoso keyboard technique. To achieve all of this requires great flexibility of control. The temptation is to load the console with a bristling array of playing aids. However, it is easy to pass the point where complexity becomes self-defeating. Here are some of the guidelines we use in designing consoles. First, the console must be comfortable. Dimensions should be standard and then, as far as possible, adjustable to conform to different organists. In addition to the adjustable bench, we have on several occasions provided adjustable-height pedalboards. We use a radiating and concave pedalboard and also non-inclined manual keys on the theory that when changing from one keyboard to another it is important that they be uniform. Controls must be placed in positions that are easy to see, memorize and reach. The combination action should be as flexible as possible providing the organist the opportunity to assign groups of stops to a piston at will. For example, on our combination action with the Range feature the organist can, while seated at the console, change divisional pistons into generals and vice-versa, assign pedal stops to a manual division, rearrange reversibles, etc. Multiple memories, of course, are now standard and of great value.

In addition to the multiple, assignable expression boxes, Variable Tremulant, and Sforzando coupler mentioned elsewhere, we like to include three special Pedal accessories on larger instruments. The first is a coupler bringing the Pedal to the Choir to facilitate fast pedal passages in transcriptions of orchestral accompaniments. The second is a Pedal Divide which silences the Pedal couplers in the low notes and silences the pedal stops in the upper notes. This allows the simultaneous playing of bass and solo lines on the pedalboard. The third is Pizzicato Bass, with a momentary-touch relay activating pipes of the Pedal Double Open Wood at 8¢ pitch. This provides a clear, pointed attack to the bass line reminiscent of divisi arco/pizzicato double bass writing for orchestra. This effect has been very useful in articulating bass lines, which on the organ are otherwise clouded rhythmically. The octave note is hardly noticeable, but the increase in buoyancy of the pedal line is quite amazing.

The most valuable and perhaps most controversial flexibility device is unification (extension). Certainly nothing other than tracker action has caused more argument over the last 50 years. The individual valve system obviously makes unification both simple and economical. Unification offers several musical advantages as we will see, but there are great dangers as well and it is most unfortunate that it has been so misused that some cannot see any of its advantages. We employ unification in symphonic organs, large and small, wherever a positive musical advantage can be achieved. Unification is, after all, merely coupling of individual stops rather than entire divisions. Whereas coupling is generally accepted, unification is not despite the fact that coupling of individual stops can offer a far more artistic result.

Perhaps the most interesting use of the unification is in creating new sounds. For example, to produce the stunning orchestral effect of trombones, tenor tubas, or horns playing in unison, we developed the Tuben (III) stop. This converts a chorus of 16’, 8’, 4’ tubas or trumpets into a unison ensemble by bringing the 4’ stop down an octave, the 16’ stop up an octave, and combining these with the 8’ stop. The three tones of slightly different scale but similar character create a most appealing unison effect and can be further combined with other stops of similar color at 8’ pitch. We have done the same with 16’, 8’ and 4’ Clarinet stops creating unison ensemble Clarinet tone, a common orchestrator’s device and most valuable to the organist for accompaniment and improvisation.

A traditional use of unification is in pedal borrowing from the manuals. We use this device extensively based on observation that one of the most difficult tasks facing an organist is finding a bass of suitable volume and color. We sometimes also borrow stops from one manual to another so that a stop may be used without tying up another manual with a coupler. A common application is transferring the Choir Clarinet to the Great so that it may be played against the Choir mutations. In some cases we derive an entire third manual on a moderate size organ from stops of the Great and Swell. This manual may either contain solo stops selected from both of the other manuals or a combination of solo stops from one manual and a secondary chorus from the other. A recent example is at Spring Valley United Methodist Church, Dallas, Texas. We occasionally extend stops—commonly downward to 16’ in the manuals and occasionally upward. Stops so treated must not be considered substitutes for primary chorus material. In other words, the organ must stand on its own as a completely straight design before any unification is employed. Stops extended upward must have a character of tone such that if a straight stop were to be employed, the scale would be the same or nearly so. Thus, extensions of string stops are much more likely to be successful than extensions of diapason stops.

Unification should not replace the ensemble of straight voices; it should simply make them available in different ways. If a stop can be useful also in another place or at another pitch and if this does not compromise the integrity of the organ’s design then we believe it is wrong not to include the unification. Failure to do so limits the organist’s musical options. The real point of the straight organ design concept is having all of the necessary independent voices even if one must give up some attractive ones to assure good ensemble. Once this is achieved, there is nothing wrong with making the voices you have do double or triple duty. It is interesting to note that in organs of a century ago a solo stop might be contrived through the use of couplers. A stop name would appear on a combination piston, the function of which was to draw a stop, a unison-off coupler, and an octave coupler thus making a 16’ reed, for example, available at 8’ as a solo stop. One can conclude that the earlier builders were not against unification, they simply did not have the practical means to do it. Unification and other devices to enhance flexibility need not be used by organists who do not like them, but to leave them out of the specification is to deprive others the full use of the costly resources the organ offers. Players of other instruments are always searching for ease of control so that their energy can be concentrated on musicianship. Organists might be a happier lot by doing the same instead of idolizing the organ’s ancient limitations.

Conclusion

We may be entering the greatest era in the fascinating life of the organ. The improvement in substitute electronic instruments has released the organ industry from the burden of making cheap pipe organs for customers with low expectations. Builders are working more and more for those with cultivated taste who appreciate an artistic approach to the craft. Organs are seldom purchased as a piece of church equipment as they were in days past. Now there is a place for all types of high quality pipe organs from antique reproductions to historically informed eclectic schemes to modern symphonic instruments. If the organ is to progress musically, it will be through the further development of its expressive—symphonic—qualities and the realization that the organ is a wind instrument ensemble with great potential, not merely a sometimes-awkward member of the early keyboard family.

Reprinted with permission from the Journal of The British Institute of Organ Studies, Vol. 26, 2002. Peter Williams, chairman; Nigel Browne and Alastair Johnston, editors. Positif Press, Oxford.

A skill of great value to most organists is the ability to make recordings of music on the organ. As students we have teachers and colleagues to give feedback on our playing, but when formal study ceases do we stop learning new works? Most organists are continually learning new music and reworking old pieces for performance in concert and/or church. We rely primarily on our own musical taste and experience, of course, but who is listening to us--objectively and with complete attention--when we grapple with the often difficult and complicated process of working up a piece on the organ? A tape recorder will give us an excellent idea of how we're doing--if we use one. Robert Noehren reports that he records about half of his practicing, enabling him to listen to and analyze his playing.1 Why don't more organists use tape recording as a learning tool? Many say they would like to, but either they "don't know how to do it" or think "it's too much of a production" to be practical.

The purpose of this article is threefold:

1) to give organists a set of basic tools and techniques with which they can, easily and quickly, make diagnostic tape recordings of their own playing;

2) expand on the above with more advanced techniques to achieve recordings suitable for mastering on cassette or CD;

3) give professional techniques, some unique to recording the organ, which can help organists who are working with sound engineers achieve the highest quality recordings.

The information in this article comes from the author's personal experience, research on the subject, experimentation based on the research, and in-depth interviews with some of the leading professional sound engineers who specialize in recording the organ and who have generously shared their knowledge and techniques:

Michael Barone, Pipedreams

John Eargle, Delos International

Frederick Hohman, Pro Organo

Michael Nemo, Towerhill

Jack Renner, Telarc International

David Wilson, Wilson Audiophile.

The footnotes give either background information to supplement the text, or specific information on sources of items mentioned in the text.

Selecting Microphones

The function of the microphone is to convert sound energy into electrical energy which can be recorded. There are two basic types: dynamic and condenser. Dynamic microphones are generally lower in quality and price, and they are not recommended for the rigorous challenges of organ recording.2 Condenser or electret condenser microphones do require a power source (usually an internal battery) and can give very high quality recordings at a quite reasonable price. Some of the experts recommended less-expensive condenser mikes marketed by: Audio-Technica, Beyer, EV, Nakamichi, Shure and Sony.

Frequency Response

Since the frequency of low CC of a 16' pipe is 32 cycles per second (or Hz), the minimum microphone frequency response you need for organ recording is 30-15,000 Hz. For quality microphones, the frequency response specification is given like this: 30-15,000 ±3.5 dB, or 20-18,000 ±3.0 dB. The first spec means that from 30Hz (just below 16'CC) all the way up to 15,000Hz (which approaches the upper limit of hearing), sounds recorded by the microphone will be within a range no greater or no less than 3.5 decibels from the mean, which is pretty good. The second spec indicates a higher quality microphone, which at a low limit of 20Hz "hears" well down into the 32' range (low CCC of a 32' pipe is 16Hz), up through the range of human hearing and which, at ±3.0 dB has a slightly flatter (better) frequency response curve than the other microphone. Some pro mikes respond down to 5 Hz, which is lower than CCCC of a 64' stop!

Polar Response Pattern

Another key microphone characteristic is the polar response pattern, which simply refers to the direction in which the microphone "listens." An "omnidirectional" microphone picks up sounds equally in all directions--top, bottom, left, right, front and rear.3 On the other hand, a "cardioid" (sometimes referred to as "unidirectional") microphone is directional--it responds to sound from a broad angle in front of the microphone and rejects sound from the rear. While there are other response patterns (hemispherical, supercardioid, figure of eight, etc.), these are subsets of the two main types. Both omnidirectional and cardioid microphones can make excellent organ recordings, and in certain situations one may be preferred over the other.

It should be noted that you don't necessarily have to choose between the two types when purchasing a microphone, however, if you get a microphone with interchangeable "capsules." The Nakamichi CM-100 condenser microphone, an excellent microphone which the author uses, has a list price of $150 with a cardioid capsule, and an interchangeable omnidirectional capsule is available for $30.4 Since you may need both omnidirectional and cardioid pickup patterns, depending on where you are recording, microphones with interchangeable capsules are most attractive (see Fig. 1).

Stereo vs. Mono Mikes

Of course you want to make stereo recordings, but should you use one stereo microphone or two monophonic microphones to do it? In general, you have a great deal more flexibility with two monophonic mikes. A "stereo" microphone is simply two mono microphones in one housing. There are two categories: the big, high-quality and very expensive professional version and the small, inexpensive and generally inferior amateur version. The former type is too expensive for amateur recording, and the latter usually doesn't have sufficient frequency response for organ recording.5 However, a mid-priced "stereo" microphone can be a convenient solution for personal recordings made with recorders which have a single stereo miniplug microphone input (more details on this follow).

PZM Microphones

One of the best microphone values, and an excellent choice for personal recordings of the organ, is the "pressure zone microphone" or PZM from Radio Shack (catalog no. 33-1090B) which sells for $60 each.6 The Radio Shack PZM is a low impedance condenser microphone with a 1/4" phone plug. The advantage of the PZM mike is that it allows great freedom in placement (you can tape them to walls, or lay them on the floor or on top of the console--no microphone stands required), they have excellent clarity and frequency response. The pickup pattern is "hemispherical," which means that they are omnidirectional above the plane upon which they are lying (see Fig. 2).

Plugging the Mikes In

On one end of the cable is the microphone and on the other end is a plug. Making sure the microphone plug is electronically and physically compatible with the recorder input is a challenge which requires forethought and planning. Professional equipment--microphones, mixers and recorders--use a low impedance (150 to 600 ohm) system that usually announces itself by the presence of a "balanced" 3-wire XLR plug. This allows long cable runs without hum via XLR extension cables.

Semi-pro microphones (such as the Nakamichi CM-100 mentioned earlier) also use the balanced low impedance system. The microphone itself has an XLR plug (see Fig. 3) and the supplied microphone cable has an XLR on one end and a 1/4" phone plug on the other. This cable is, in effect, an adapter which converts the balanced XLR to an unbalanced 1/4" phone plug. Phone plugs used to be the standard for microphone inputs on home audio gear7 and continue to be the standard on semi-pro equipment. If you need to extend the cable for proper microphone placement, use XLR 3-wire extension cables (the kind with a male plug on one end and a female plug on the other).8 This will prevent hum, whereas the less-expensive shielded extension cables with 1/4" phone plugs on either end will quite possibly cause hum.

The Stereo Miniplug Input

If your recorder9 has a single, stereo miniplug mike input, you have a potential problem. In order to use two mono mikes with 1/4" phone plugs, you need a "Y" adapter with two 1/4" female mono connectors on one end and a stereo male mini (3.5mm) plug on the other (see Fig. 4). This is not an easy item to find, but trying to "create" one from the various plugs and adapters commonly found in electronics stores is a recipe for disaster--it is virtually guaranteed to cause hum (see Fig. 5). The Hosa Company markets the correct part (model YMP-137)10 through independent audio/electronic supply stores.

Another solution, if your recorder has a single stereo miniplug input, is to purchase the best semi-pro stereo mike which terminates in this kind of plug. The Audio-Technica AT822 is a high-quality mike of this type with a frequency response of 30-20,000 Hz. It sells for a pricey $350,11 but it does plug right in and works well. The "under $100" stereo mikes don't have sufficient bass response for organ recording.

As an alternative to using the stereo miniplug microphone input, you can use a mixer and go directly into the "line" inputs.12 The "mixer" solution--which we will discuss shortly--is required if the recorder has no microphone inputs at all.

Cassette vs. DAT

There are basically two choices for a recording medium: cassette tape and digital audio tape (DAT). We will ignore a myriad of other systems such as the digital cassette, the digital minidisc, the recordable CD, 1/4" reel to reel, and recording on "hi-fi" videotape as they are either marginal, impractical or inferior.

Everybody is familiar with cassette tapes. They are great for making personal "analysis" recordings because the tape itself is inexpensive, you can listen to the results in the car, etc. While the original recorded cassette can sound great on playback, the inherent noise level of the medium makes it a less good choice if your goal is to make master tapes for release on cassette or CD.13

Because of its superior quality, digital audio tape (DAT) is an excellent medium for personal analysis recordings and more ambitious projects as well.14A home DAT or portable DAT recorder will cost a minimum of $550, and professional portable models cost from $1500 to $4000. DAT 120-minute tapes are about $10 each.

Cassette "Deck" Challenges

There are some challenges to using home cassette decks--the A.C. "plug into the wall" models which are a component of a home stereo system--for location recording. As virtually none of the newer models have microphone inputs, a "mixer" is required between the mikes and the "line" inputs on the recorder (this is also true of home A.C. DAT decks). Further, few newer cassette decks allow you to plug in headphones and listen to playback, and of those which do very few have a volume control for the headphones. This is mandatory for playback in the field, but a mixer solves this problem too, as we shall discuss. Also, many low-to-midpriced cassette recorders suffer from excessive wow and flutter distortion, which is particularly annoying on the sustained tones of the organ. The bottom line: it is not a good idea to purchase an A.C. home cassette deck for location recording. If you own an older model with microphone inputs and a headphone output with volume control, you are all set (see Fig. 6). However, if you own a newer model cassette deck without these features, we'll show you how to make the best use of it.

Portable Location Recorders

Battery-operated portable recorders designed for high quality music recording--with mike inputs and full headphone capabilities--are not a common item.15 The Sony Walkman Pro series has two cassette recorders: the WM-D3 at $250 and the WM-D6C at $350.16 These are quality cassette recorders. The rugged WM-D6C especially is a fine recorder and a good value. They will do well for personal analysis recordings. Their performance must be compared with the Sony TCD-D7 DAT portable, however, which at a "street" price of $550 makes substantially superior recordings. All three of these Sony recorders have a single stereo miniplug input for the microphone, stereo miniplugs for the line inputs and outputs, plus a headphone jack and volume control.

Using an Audio Mixer

Suppose that you have a perfectly good home cassette deck or home DAT deck without mike inputs. You want to do some analysis recording with it, and you don't mind unhooking it and taking to the church. In addition to the microphones, you will need a mixer to convert the microphone's output into a "line" input the recorder can use. I will confess to "mixer paralysis"--I didn't understand the button-laden beasts and steered well clear of them. This was a mistake I finally rectified, as Rudy Trubitt points out in his excellent book written for the beginner titled Compact Mixers:

Beneath its dizzying array of controls, a mixer actually has some important similarities to a home stereo receiver. A stereo receiver has controls that let you switch between different components of your hi-fi system, and also enables you to set overall volume, the balance between left and right speakers, and tone controls to shape the overall sound. A mixer does many of these things as well, and in addition allows you to control and combine or mix sounds from many different sources [such as two or more microphones] at once.17

For stereo recording, mixers need controls called pan pots. Inexpensive "mixers" designed for the party DJ market. including those sold by Radio Shack, lack this essential feature. Michael Barone and other audio professionals recommend the Mackie MS1202 compact mixer, which is specifically featured in Mr. Trubitt's book. It is priced at $299, which is very inexpensive for a fully professional mixer.18 I have found mine to be small, light weight, easy to use and of excellent quality (see Fig 7).

A mixer will also enable you to listen to playback in the field from recorders which have no headphone volume control or no headphone output at all. Simply run a patch cord from the line output of the recorder to the line input of the mixer. This is very simple to do and gives new utility to recorders with neither headphone volume control nor headphone output (see Fig. 8).

Setting the Record Level

To achieve the cleanest recorded sound, you want to record the loudest sections of the music at the loudest level possible on the tape without causing distortion.19 To set the recorder properly, simply play the loudest section of the music to be recorded at a given session20 and adjust the record level so you get the appropriate reading on the VU meter.21  The "appropriate reading" on the VU meter is different for different mediums.

With DAT, you never want the level to exceed 0dB on the DAT recorder's VU meter, so--while the loudest chord is being held--advance the record level control so that the meter reads 0dB.22 Once the level is set, you don't need to touch it again for the duration of your recording session.

There are three different kinds of cassette tape: Standard (Type I), Chromium Dioxide or CrO2 (Type II), and Metal (Type IV).  Type II tape can accept a louder signal than Type I without distortion, and Type IV can accept a louder signal than Type II. The record level should be adjusted with Type I tape so that the peak level is 0dB on the VU meter. With Type II the peak level should be +1dB and with Type IV it is +3dB. Note that these last two settings will have the peaks in the red of the VU meter, and that's fine as long as no audible distortion results.

When choosing cassette tape, skip the somewhat noisy "standard" tape and try the CrO2 (Type II) tape recorded with Dolby B sound reduction. This is a good compromise on price and compatibility,23 and it gives excellent quality on playback. There will be a switch on the recorder which you need to set at "CrO2" or "Type II" or "High Bias," which are three ways to refer to this one kind of tape. Depending on your situation, you may also want to experiment with "metal" tape (Type IV) and Dolby C, which, all other things being equal, gives the highest quality on cassette.

Listening to Playback

One of the requirements for location recording is a good set of headphones. The best designs have circular padded cushions which completely surround each ear and provide some degree of acoustic isolation. You are shielded from noise in the room, and people in the room are less likely to be annoyed by playback from your earphones. Quality headphones provide a lot of sound for a reasonable price. The Sony MDR-V600 dynamic stereo headphones the author uses have clean, lifelike sound with a frequency response which extends well down into the 32' range.24 Priced around $100, they come with a clever screw-on adapter which converts the integral stereo miniplug to a 1/4" stereo phone plug (see Fig. 9). This is very handy as small portable recorders have a miniplug headphone output, and mixers and other audio gear have a 1/4" phone jack.

Stands and Safety

Anyone who can imagine a tall microphone stand crashing down amidst a sea of pews appreciates that basic safety rules must be followed at all times to protect life and property. Use only a stable microphone stand and if necessary, weigh down the base with sandbags.25 Attach the mike cable(s) to the top of the stand with cable ties,26 allowing a bit of slack between the cable tie and the mike, so the weight of the cable doesn't pull on the mike. Run the microphone cable down the stand and either tie it around the base of the stand or preferably attach it securely with a cable tie. Then if the cable gets an unexpected jerk, the force will act on the relatively stable base of the stand and not on the very unstable top.

Microphone stands for organ recording should ideally allow you to position the microphones 20' or more in the air, which precludes many less-expensive audio stands. Audio engineers often use heavy-duty motion picture lighting stands adapted to accept the 5/8" thread which is the audio industry standard.27 Michael Barone recommends, in levels of increasing capability and cost: 1) Shure microphone stands, 2) Bogen light stands, 3) the Ultimate Support system.

If the public is in the room, the microphone cables must be taped down to the floor lengthwise with 2" masking tape so no one trips. These precautions are necessary because no recording is important enough to risk injuring someone, and we live in a very litigious society.

In Part II we will look at one of the most critical aspects of the art of recording--microphone placement.

Notes

1.              Correspondence of September, 1995.

2.              Dynamic mikes don't require a battery. If the microphone you are considering requires a battery, it is not a dynamic mike.

3.              Omnidirectional microphones tend to become more directional--and less omnidirectional--above 3000 Hz, so it is important to point them toward the sound source. Because the response from the sides and back of the mike begins to fall off above 3000 Hz (pitches at and above 3000 Hz are an important component of the harmonics of most 8' voices), you get enough directionality to maintain a clear sense of left and right.

4.              For a list of dealers, contact: Nakamichi America Corporation, 955 Francisco St., Torrance, CA 90502, (310)538-8150.

5.              A frequency response no lower than 50 Hz, which is typical for inexpensive stereo mikes, won't pickup the bottom octave of a 16' Bourdon.

6.              Crown International of Elkhart, Indiana, manufactures a full range of PZM mikes for the professional.

7.              Home audio recorders no longer have microphone inputs, and portable amateur recorders often have a single stereo miniplug input for the microphones.

8.              XLR extension cables cost about $16 per 25' or $47 per 100'.

9.              Such as the Sony Walkman Pro or the Sony DAT portable (TCD-D7).

10.           For availability contact: Hosa Technology, Inc., 6910 E. 8th St., Buena Park, CA 90620.

11.           For availability contact: Audio-Technica, 1221 Commerce Drive, Stow, OH 44224.

12.           In most cases there will be two RCA jacks for the left and right channel inputs, and you will use a standard RCA male-male patch cord to connect the mixer to the recorder. But on some portable recorders you may find a stereo miniplug line input, in which case you need a patch cord with two RCA male connectors on one end (for the mixer) and a male stereo miniplug on the other end (for the recorder).

13.           There is no escaping the fact that the cassette started life as a lowly medium for dictation. The ultra-slow 17/8" per second tape speed and the narrow tape width cause a certain amount of hiss despite the best efforts of tape recorder designers and Dolby® noise reduction systems.

14.           Because DAT is digital and cassettes are analog, comparing them is like comparing apples and oranges. All cassette recorders have measurable wow and flutter distortion from tape speed fluctuations, whereas DAT machines generally have no measurable wow and flutter. The frequency response, signal to noise ratio, dynamic range and overall distortion specifications of the best cassette machines are not as good as even the less-expensive, amateur DAT recorders.

15.           There are some less expensive (approx. $100) portable cassette recorders by Aiwa with a stereo mike input and a headphone output. They have neither Dolby noise reduction for the record function nor a record level control (AGC only), very important features for reasonable quality with cassettes.

16.           These are "street" prices--the lowest purchase price I could find--not list prices.

17.           Rudy Trubitt, Compact Mixers, published in 1995 by Hal Leonard Corporation, 7777 W. Bluemound Rd., P.O. Box 13819, Milwaukee, WI, 53213, page 3.

18.           Available from the "Pro Audio" department of Guitar Center stores nationally. Inquire at 7425 Sunset Blvd., Hollywood, CA, 90046, (213) 874-1060 for a list of locations.

19.           This technique maximizes the "signal to noise ratio." The "signal" is the music and the "noise" is the tape hiss and amplifier hum. Since the noise is at a more-or-less constant low level, the louder the music level the more it stands out from the noise. While softer than the loud sections, the quiet portions of the music will also sound as clean as possible.

20.           If the session extends over several days, use one level setting based on the loudest piece. The only exception would be a program with one or two loud pieces and many softer ones. I would consider using one level setting for the loud work(s) and a louder recording setting for the softer pieces, as this will maximize clarity among the latter group.

21.           The recorder's "VU" meter allows you to set non-distorting recording levels consistently. It has numbers in decibels (dB), with a range of positive numbers (+1, +2, +3, etc.) "in the red" above zero dB and a range of numbers "in the black" below (-1, -5, -20). The range of numbers below zero dB is where most recording takes place. The meter can take two forms: an older style needle which swings on a pivot throughout the meter's range, and the newer style LEDs which illuminate (no moving parts to break).

22.           This is generally true, but also consult the recorder's instruction manual.

23.           Not every tape player, especially in cars, has a setting for Metal (Type IV) tape or Dolby C noise reduction. Playing metal tapes and/or Dolby C tapes in a machine set up for Type II tape and Dolby B will result in a significant loss of fidelity.

24.           They are also excellent for listening to organ CDs on a portable CD player--you can pick up many nuances that you might miss when listening via speakers. The claimed frequency response is 5 to 30,000 Hz.

25.           Fully sealed 15# sandbags in a "saddlebag" configuration for this purpose are available from motion picture equipment supply houses and some professional audio supply houses.

26.           The Lowel-Light Company, 140 58th St., Brooklyn, NY 11220, phone (800) 334-3426, makes secure and inexpensive reusable plastic cable ties which are available in larger photo stores. Velcro cable ties are also available.

27.           The author uses the Lowel KS stand ($135) which will extend to 8' (see footnote 26). The Lowel KP extension pole ($58) allows 5' of extension, and you can use several of those (sandbags are essential if you use extension poles). On the very top you need the Lowel Tota-Tilter T1-36 ($25), a 1/4-20 to 3/8 screw thread adapter (available in most photo stores) and a special 3/8 to 5/8 screw thread adapter thread available from Alan Gordon Enterprises, 1430 Cahuenga Blvd., LA, CA 90028, (213) 466-3561. The microphone holder screws into the 5/8" thread.

Other articles in this series, and by Joseph Horning, etc.:

Recording the organ part 2: Microphone placement

Chorale Preludes of Johannes Brahms

Recording the sound of a pipe organ in church

Microphone arrangement for recording a pipe organ

Acoustic excellence is derived from wise design planning and decision-making regarding elements that are already “givens” within a project and budget

Acoustics in the Worship Space I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, and IX have appeared in The Diapason, May 1983, May 1984, January 1986, May 1987, April 1988, April 1990, July 1991, May 1992, and April 2009 issues respectively.

In today’s world and economy, costs and budgets loom large in almost all activities and endeavors. During discussions of new church building or renovation projects, it might not be uncommon to hear the following ideas expressed: “Good acoustics aren’t really worth it for the average worshipper who won’t notice or appreciate it—that’s just for the elite ‘Carnegie Hall crowd;’” or, “It will cost too much to have good acoustics, and we cannot afford it.” When these notions surface they can sometimes be the cause for a church being doomed to a less than excellent acoustic environment.

Scientifically and experientially, it can be proven that good acoustic settings are indeed noticeable and appreciated by many, and not only by the “Carnegie Hall crowd”! In fact, acoustic qualities such as speech intelligibility, musical balance, and rhythmic and tuning accuracy can be scientifically tested and documented as being perceived and valued by a cross section of the population. The notion that “regular folks” won’t notice good acoustics is just scientifically false!

Economic issues are often the most difficult to resolve in many projects. Reduced availability of funds, lack of confidence in the economy, and the fear of future economic conditions are often governing factors. Indeed, when constructing a new worship facility or remodeling an existing one, many important matters tug at the purse strings, and budgeting can often be a stressor to a project. That said, it would still be eminently beneficial to consider acoustic issues seriously, and not simply dismiss acoustic excellence as being unaffordable or unattainable. Acoustic excellence does not necessarily mean purchasing “extra” or expensive features. Often, acoustic excellence can be realized from wise decisions and design choices regarding elements that are already a given part of a project.  

The primary architectural factors that affect the acoustic environment include the geometric form of a room (does the structure’s cubic air volume and shape enhance or detract from good sound?), the interior materials of a room (to what extent do selected interior finishes reflect, absorb, or transmit sound energy in a structure?), and the location of key elements (do the relative proximities of things such as microphones, speakers, singers, organ pipes, instruments, and even potentially noise-generating equipment help or hinder sound perception?). Wise or poor design choices regarding any of these factors can result in acoustic excellence or disaster.  

Geometric form of a room

Geometric room forms can distribute and project sound evenly through a space, or can generate unwanted tonal focusing, echoes, and standing waves. Successful worship space geometries typically have generous cubic air volumes, longer and shorter axes, and unobstructed “line of sight” sound projection paths. Sound-diffusing wall and ceiling surface profiles and features will also contribute to even distribution and dispersing of sound energy. Alternatively, low ceilings, flat and parallel surfaces, concave forms, deep transepts, etc., typically limit acoustical potential and create echoes, “hot spots,” “dead spots,” flutters, trapping, and other unwanted and disturbing acoustical anomalies.

Interior materials of a room

Appropriate ratios of sound-reflective to sound-absorbing materials in a room can result in a vibrant and reverberative space that enlivens music and liturgical participation, and produces 

authoritative speech. Alternatively, excessive amounts of carpeting, draperies, and other sound-absorbing features can deliver a dull, dead effect that suffocates worship participation and leaves music and speech uninspiring. Having a carefully selected ratio of sound-reflecting to sound-absorbing materials, which results in an appropriate reverberation period, is essential to a worthwhile acoustic setting.  

Location of key elements

Then there is location! The relative placement of organ pipes and choir singers together will allow choristers to hear accompaniments and each other clearly and facilitate accurate rhythm and tuning. For example, positioning singers in an ensemble format, forward and below organ cases or chambers, can maximize musical potential. If singers are placed far from organ pipes, within restrictive alcoves, behind obstructions, or strung out in long lines, the entire musical ensemble will suffer from being disengaged. Similarly, the correct location of loudspeakers relative to both microphones and the listening congregation can assure speech intelligibility for all, while inappropriate placement of sound system components can result in frustration and lost clarity for all; if loudspeakers are placed with direct “line of sight” access to all listeners, they can deliver sound with clarity. Ultimately, it is not enough to have all of the sound sources and listeners “somewhere” in the room.  Relational locations and proximities are critical to success.

Finally, even if all of the beneficial acoustic design features for room geometry, material selections, and functional proximities are adopted, all can still be ruined if unwanted and interrupting noises invade the worship space. Techniques such as placing noise-generating equipment and functions away from the worship space, and using resilient mountings and discontinuous structures can mitigate “noise to listener” pathways.  

Acoustic excellence

In all of these examples, acoustic success is not derived from expensive treatments or extra apparatus. Acoustic excellence is instead derived from wise design planning and decision-making regarding elements that are already “givens” within a project and budget. It may cost no more or less to place organ pipes in good or poor proximity to choir singers! It may cost no more or less to place noise-generating air-conditioning compressors near or far from the worship space! It may cost no more or less to angle a wall profile to avoid or create an echo! In many instances, the good acoustic choice can indeed be the least costly choice. For example, a hard surface floor that reinforces sound energy will last a lifetime, while a carpeted floor that removes sound energy from an environment will wear over time and eventually require replacement.  

While significant acoustic success can be realized from informed design and decision-making, it should not be inferred, however, that all acoustic matters are free and easy! There are some acoustic benefits worth paying for. Hard, dense walls that reinforce and balance low frequency tone near organ pipes and choir singers are indeed more expensive than thin gypsum board, but the price of the thin walls can be perpetually brittle and “tinny” music. It may cost more to hoist heavy loudspeakers to a high ceiling location than to wall-mount smaller units, but the price of poor speaker placement is a missed opportunity to proclaim the word with clarity and intelligibility. It may cost more to line air-conditioning ducts to prevent noise transmission, but constant HVAC noise interrupting speech and music during worship ruins the experience for all. While these and similarly important acoustic details do have an initial price tag, the cost of remedying these details later is even greater. As a wise observer once said, “If you don’t have the funds to do it right the first time, where are you going to find the additional funds to do it over again?” So, the functional value of design decisions must also be considered along with cost.

Substantial and significant acoustic benefits can result from making wise choices about already-fixed costs. A building will have floors, walls, and ceiling; these can be designed to work in favor of a good acoustic environment through careful detailing, and not necessarily through additional expense. A good acoustical environment can be defeated through uninformed and unwise design, and not necessarily because of lack of spending! Great acoustical worship environments are indeed achievable, even on a budget. Careful overall planning that maximizes the acoustic potential of a design, combined with reasonable spending on priority features, can result in architectural, functional, and inspirational value for generations.

Photo credit: Scott R. Riedel & Associates.

David Sims holds degrees in church music and organ performance from St. Olaf College and Indiana University, having studied with Larry Smith, Catherine Rodland, and John Ferguson. He serves as director of music at North Christian Church in Columbus, Indiana, and does service work, wiring, and voicing for Goulding & Wood.

In the summer of 2009, I embarked on a journey unusual for most organists: I left “our” side of the console and spent two weeks in the pipe chambers. As an employee of Goulding & Wood, Inc., of Indianapolis, I had been in plenty of organs before, but this was the first time I was able to go on a tonal finishing trip and spend as much time in the organ as playing the finished result. Because this opportunity seldom arises, I wrote the following as a reflection on the process of tonal finishing from the perspective of an organist and what lessons organists can learn from their instruments.
Among musicians, we organists might be guilty of knowing the least about our instrument. Most likely this has to do with a typical organ’s size and layout. Because of its small size, it is easy to become intimately acquainted with a violin, for example, but organs are much larger and more complex. Often the console is separated by considerable distance or height from the rest of the organ, with little hope of peering in without a ladder. Inside are tons of moving parts—the most interesting of which are sealed in a windchest that we are unable to open while the organ is on—and pipes, which look the same whether they are sounding or not.
In college and graduate school, I spent as much time taking practice organs apart as I did practicing, so it’s no surprise that after my master’s degree in performance I went to work for Goulding & Wood. After almost a year of tuning, service work, and helping in the shop, I had the opportunity to go on the tonal finishing trip for Opus 48, a 3-manual, 59-rank organ in Macon, Georgia. Growing up fascinated by organs, I always thought of voicing as a form of magic: somehow, with the right touch, someone got thousands of pipes to speak together. Our rather unique situation among musicians of having only finite and incremental control over the timbre of our music exacerbates the tendency to view voicing as magical. That is, once we get down to only one stop, we cease to have much influence over tone color or volume. The rest is, well, magic.
So what did this organist learn on a tonal finishing trip that might help on “our” side of the console? Goulding & Wood’s process of tonal finishing begins in the shop. After visiting the site, our voicer does nearly all of the voicing in the shop while the organ is being built, leaving some room for adjustment. When the organ installation is complete, onsite tonal finishing begins. First, all of the regulators on offset pipes are set to match the pipes on the main chests. Then the organ is completely tuned, starting with the Great 4′ Octave and moving outward through the flues and then the reeds.
At this point, the organ is completely playable, and we can hear where the organ is and what needs adjusting. The stops are gone through carefully and balanced against the rest of the organ’s resources. Pipe speech and quality are given just as much attention as volume and pitch. Our preference is to work until the evening, then take an hour or more to play literature and take notes for the next day’s work.
The rhythm of working, listening, and playing led me to reflect on a number of lessons I learned that might be helpful to other organists.
1) Voicing is not magic. Voicing, the art of balancing pipe speech across an organ, is just that: an art. It takes experience, hard work, intuition, artistry, common sense, personality—but not magic. “Magic,” after all, is the word we give to things we cannot explain and have given up trying to understand further. For a magic trick to remain magical, we must take it at face value, investigating no deeper and leave merely tickled by its illusion.
This is not to downplay the effects or importance of the voicing process. It is indeed some kind of magic that music can become poetic communication. But voicing is no more magical than a cellist influencing the tone quality from her cello; it’s a learned musical skill. It feels magical or mysterious as players because we don’t do it and know little about it. Voicing is simply outside the realm of our experience, not an illusion.
As organists, we can begin to de-mystify the voicing process, starting by taking ownership of what we hear. We should practice listening to organs so that we can be as descriptive as possible, reserving judgment and instead focusing on what we hear, not on what we’ve heard others say.
2) Individuals matter. After the first day of tuning, we had just the Great 8′ and 4′ principals in tune. The excitement of finally being able to play something on the organ in its intended space was so great that we spent an hour or so just playing on these two stops.
I don’t believe I’ve ever played on just one or two stops for that long. I know that had I sat down at a new organ that was entirely tuned I wouldn’t have had the patience to limit myself to each stop for so long; half a praeludium later I’d have tried the entire principal chorus and moved on to the flutes. Narrowing my focus (albeit out of necessity) to only two sounds was the most eye-opening experience on the trip. I really got to know those ranks, how they changed throughout the register, what they sounded like on their attack, and how their color was rich with description, not just “principal-ly.” Each day, the palette of colors expanded as we had more and more stops tuned. New stops taught us more about the original 8′ and 4′ as we were able to pair them in more combinations.
As organists, we should challenge ourselves to limit our registrations when meeting an organ new to us. Individual sounds matter, so get to know each stop as a building block before you add more. We are so quick to mix sounds without really listening to each ingredient, even though the organ was voiced so that each stop was beautiful in and of itself.
3) Duplicates suggest usage. Space on a windchest is expensive real estate, so one hopes each rank is placed there purposefully and thoughtfully. Because space is such a premium, duplicate stops—stops that are essentially the same in different divisions—are clues that they were voiced for different purposes. Goulding & Wood’s tonal philosophy is rooted in a fully developed skeleton of principal choruses, so each division has at least a 4′ principal chorus. With four 4′ principals on the organ, each was voiced to have its own place in the tonal scheme.
For example, we spent careful time balancing the Choir 4′ with the Swell 4′ because the Choir box is to the rear of the chamber and needed to be brought up in volume. A careful listener could listen to these “duplicate” stops and hopefully hear two ranks with similar volume but slightly different color—the Swell Octave a little fuller to match the smooth 8′ Geigen Diapason, and the Choir Fugara to match the more transparent, lighter Choir plenum.
Opus 48 has an 8′ Trumpet on each division; as an organist, take time to listen to the differences to each one and ask “why?” The Great 8′ Trumpet is broad and voiced to blend with the principal chorus, adding richness and color. The Swell 8′ Trumpet has more brilliance and upper harmonics to add a fiery sound to the whole organ, while the 8′ Cornopean in the Choir is big in scale but voiced and regulated to be subdued and have more heavy fundamental in its tone. The Pedal 8′ Trumpet helps to delineate the pedal line in contrapuntal music, works nicely as a solo, and marries the large 16′ Posaune to the rest of the organ.
The Macon instrument also has two 16′ stopped flutes, one in the Swell (and unified to the Pedal) and one in the Pedal. We adjusted the 16′ Lieblich in the Swell first, and then voiced the Pedal 16′ Subbass to be larger than the Swell. Hopefully, as organists we would take the time to investigate why the organbuilder decided that two 16′ stopped flutes were necessary, and how each one fits in the vision of the organ as a whole.
4) Listen deeply. During the tonal finishing, we sometimes had minor interruptions, whether they were from noises outside or gracious visitors looking at the beautifully renovated sanctuary. While never enough to affect our work, I noticed how jarring it was to hear a passing police car or vacuum down the hall after concentrating on the speech of the pipes. When it was my turn to hold keys and give feedback from the room, I found myself listening more intensely than normal, both to the pipes and any other noise.
Can we all listen deeply? That is, can we engage in listening so focused that we really hear all the sounds the organ is making, even listening to the “silence” which isn’t really silence? Air handling equipment, passing traffic, and other activities are the stuff in a church that we often label as “silence.” But maybe we should sit in the church alone long enough to be aware of these sounds. Then we can truly be plugged in to what the organ is singing. After all, if we ignore ambient noises to call them, in context, “silence,” what nuances in pipe speech do we gloss over or label too broadly? Does the Rohrflöte sound like the Gedeckt? Do we register full organ by sight and never experiment with what contribution, if any, the flutes are making?
5) “The Room” doesn’t have a drawknob. We’ve all heard that “the room is the most important stop on the organ.” During this trip, I thought a lot about that axiom. It is true that the room is vitally important to the technique and effect of music-making in that space. Resonant rooms that eschew echoes but promote reverberation evenly across the pitch spectrum are certainly preferable to dry rooms, echoing rooms, or rooms that respond well to only high or low frequencies. The organ’s color and power can fully and naturally develop, and congregational singing is vastly improved. We can feel one another singing and the organ sings with us. The room is a large part of that equation.
But saying the room is a “stop” implies, however loosely, that the room can be manipulated like a set of pipes, and that a room that is less than ideal has the same tonal impact as that of a poorly voiced rank of pipes. An ugly 8′ Principal is a flaw in the organ that intrinsically impairs an instrument’s tonal design and ability to play repertoire. A dry room, however, need not hinder the organ’s tonal structure or make its colors less beautiful. After all, every other sound source—spoken word, choirs, other instruments—will be affected by the same acoustical environment. The voicer’s task is to make musical decisions that allow the organ to speak as best it can in those conditions.
In Macon we were blessed with a warm, clean-sounding room, aided by the wise removal of carpet. The reverberation was inclined to favor higher frequencies, so we spent time making sure the organ didn’t sound too brittle or glassy in the top ranges. We also spent a good deal of time listening from all over the sanctuary. When regulating the 16′ Open Wood, it was amazing how much difference our location in the room made. Some spots made the sound all but disappear, and a few feet away the sound grew tremendously. Often the organist is in the worst place to hear the organ, with much of it going over our heads.
As organists we should strive to make the organ the best it can be. Listen to it from all around the room, even if that means sticking pencils in keys and going for a walk through the pews. Feel the effects of the Subbass and how well it supports the congregation, or listen to how much the Harmonic Flute blossoms half-way down the nave. If there is any truth that the room is the most important stop on the organ, it is doubly true that the organist is ultimately the only chance the organ has of sounding its best and doing its job. Beautiful organs can be placed in less-than-ideal rooms and still inspire, instruct, and lead organists and congregations. (It should also be said that not-so-beautiful organs in less-than-ideal rooms can also inspire, instruct, and lead organists and congregations.) It is our duty as organists to display that beauty in spite of obstacles.
Working so intensely on one organ was eye-opening for me. I’d like to think that the next time I visit the organ, its sounds will remind me of the details of the hours of hard work and long discussions we had during the trip. However, I hope that my work on the organ will not freeze my exploration of its capabilities to just what I discovered during the tonal finishing this summer. Instead, I hope that intimate knowledge of this instrument will open my ears to even more ways of hearing it each time I return.
We should strive to understand that while much of what happens during tonal finishing is outside our direct control, learning to listen more critically is our choice. Being comfortable with the instrument in front of us means knowing what each stop can do, alone and with others, and it means creating our own guesses for why some stops were placed in some divisions and not others. I learned a lot about how I play and register from those weeks in Georgia, and hopefully we can all be inspired to take ownership on both sides of the console, and let the music itself take care of the magic.